Bridge Employment and Job Stopping:

This article analyzes a 1989 Louis Harris and Associates survey designed to elicit information on the employment histories and job-stopping behavior if men and women who then were approaching or has recently reached retirment age. The results indicate that retirement often occurs gradually and includes a substantial period of "bridge employment." Most bridge jobholders work full-time, by choice, and report high levels of job enjoyment. Occupationsl mobility occurring late in life typically involved upward movement, although the pattern of change is quite different when it takes place outside, rather than within, the longest job. The principal concern idenitified in this article is the limited ability of some groups of workers (nonwhites, females, the less educated, and those in poorly compensated occupations) to either retain longest jobs or to obtain acceptable bridge employment. Health problems also frequently lead to early departure from the labor force.     

Ergonomics of bridge employment

In many countries of the world, retirement is mandatory at the age at which persons who hold certain jobs or offices are required by employment law to leave their employment, or retire (60 to 65 years). Typically, this is justified by the argument that certain occupations are either too dangerous or require high levels of physical skills and mental work. Every worker has to leave the workforce at that age. However, starting from the last two decades of the last century, it is observed that retirees live more years in retirement than ever before. This relatively long retirement as well as retirees' body fitness made many of them engage in new jobs which are either similar to their career jobs, or completely different from them. In this new type of employment which is called "bridge employment', the retired worker may spend more than ten years. But, to what extent these new jobs are fitted to the aged worker? Considering that experiencing any type of event increases the risk of worse health outcomes over time, bridge employment should be ergonomically designed if it is to fit the aged worker characteristics (physical, mental and affective).     

Working Longer May Be Good Public Policy,But It Is Not Necessarily Good for Older People

Older people are facing a changed set of expectations regarding work and retirement. Until quite recently early retirement was being encouraged. Today's older workers, however, are contemplating longer working lives amid policy concerns about the costs of social welfare associated with an aging population. While working longer is, almost universally, being promoted as a social and individual good this article argues that this policy shift is unlikely to change the situation of many older workers who would have needed to continue working anyway. It also argues that the emphasis on prolonged employment undervalues engagement in activities beyond employment. As well, it argues that the emphasis on prolonging employment neglects to account for the attendant risks for many of continuing to work or having to seek work and the potential health- and well-being-enhancing effects of retirement.     

Retiree Health Insurance and Disengagement from a Career Job

Over the past two decades the prevalence of partial/phased retirements has increased dramatically, redefining retirement and the way in which retirement benefits are evaluated. Specifically the effect of retirement benefits on the transition away from a state of career employment has become the primary issue of interest. This study uses data obtained from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the Rand HRS files, to examine the relationship between access to retiree health insurance (RHI) and the decision to leave one’s career job. We employ a Cox Proportional Hazard Model to estimate how RHI affects the probability that an individual disengages from their career job, given they have not yet done so. Results indicate that those with access to RHI are 21% more likely to leave their career employer in all time periods than similar individuals without RHI. Several robustness tests including stratified estimation and propensity score matching are performed and no evidence of bias is detected.     

Predicting End‐of‐Career Transitions for Baby Boomers Nearing Retirement Age

Retirement has traditionally been conceptualized as a point‐in‐time decision to physically and psychologically withdraw from the workforce on reaching a certain age. However, the expectations of older workers demonstrate a new retirement paradigm, with many more retirement trajectories. The purpose of this study was to examine actual career decisions being made by older workers and to understand sociodemographic factors that might differentiate their career trajectories. Data from the Health and Retirement Study (Juster & Suzman, 1995 ) were analyzed using multinomial logistic regression to compare 4 retirement trajectories (i.e., no retirement, full retirement, bridge employment, and encore career). Gender, age, education, marital status, health, and wealth differentially predicted the odds of pursuing each of the 4 retirement decisions. Career practitioners may use these results to help baby boomers make retirement decisions and provide them with appropriate education, guidance, and resources. Additional research is needed to examine other factors salient to each of the retirement trajectories.     

Introduction: The aging workforce: challenges for societies, employers, and older workers

The aging of the baby boom cohorts poses challenges for societies, employers, and the baby boomers themselves: Will societies be able to sustain an exponentially increasing number of retirees and older workers? Will employers be prepared to accommodate an aging workforce, especially in times of economic recession? Will aging baby boomers desire and be able to postpone retirement and remain in their career jobs or seek bridge employment or be forced to do so out of financial necessity?     

How Does Occupational Access for Older Workers Differ by Education?

To assess the employment opportunities of older job-changers in the years prior to retirement, this study examines the how the breadth of occupations in which they find employment narrows as they age past their prime working years and how this differs by gender and educational attainment. The results indicate that workers who change jobs in their early 50s find employment in a reasonably similar set of occupations as prime-age workers, with opportunities narrowing at older ages. They also indicate that job opportunities broadened significantly for better-educated older workers since the late 1990s. While job opportunities now narrow significantly for less-educated men in their late 50s, this narrowing primarily occurs in the early 60s for women and better-educated men. In contrast to previous research, the study finds that employer policies that emphasize hiring from within are less important barriers to the hiring of older job-seekers. The study also finds that the narrowing of job opportunities is associated with a general decline in job quality as measured by median occupational earnings, a decline associated with differences in occupational skill requirements and the underlying economic environment. These results suggest that older hiring is not as limited to a select few occupations as it had been in previous decades, and that policy reforms aimed at increasing opportunities and improving labor market fluidity might best be served if they focused on less-educated men.     

Autism,employment, and the role of occupational therapy

The purpose of this article is to review the existing literature to generate guidelines for the role of occupational therapy in employment for persons with autism. Previous research about strengths and barriers to employment, and types of employment commonly offered to persons with autism are reviewed. The supported employment model is identified as the most productive approach for use with this population. The four approaches to the supported employment model and the best practice contributions of several innovative supported employment programs are discussed. The interdisciplinary team approach is best to assist persons with autism to gain employment and ensure success on the job. The role of the occupational therapist as a beneficial team member in assessment, job development, job placement and training, and supported employment is outlined.     

Transitions to part-time work at older ages: the case of people with disabilities in Europe

This paper analyses the labour-force transitions of older workers with disabilities in general, particularly workers’ transitions to and from part-time employment within a European context. Using the two first waves (2004 and 2007) of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, we compare transitions between employment statuses for disabled and non-disabled individuals, even after controlling for different disability trajectories. In addition, we employ a multivariate framework to examine the determinants for remaining in part-time work in 2007 for those individuals who were part-timers in 2004. The results show that older people with long-term disabilities have a higher probability of staying in a part-time job than their compared counterparts. Policy-makers must promote part-time employment as a means of increasing employment opportunities for older workers with disabilities and support gradual retirement opportunities with flexible and reduced working hours.     

Using a Political Economy and Life Course Approach to Understand Gendered Pension Provision in the UK

The future sustainability of pensions has gained considerable international attention over recent years. These concerns have been fuelled by increasing longevity and rising pension deficits. In addition there has been further awareness of the extent of female pensioner poverty. In order to explore this situation a suitable analytical framework is required. As pensions received in retirement are dependent on earlier events in individuals’ lives, most notably their employment history, this paper explores the need for a life course approach to examine the gendered nature of pensions in the UK. Initially the life course approach, a key mode of analysis in political economy theory, is defined. It is then used to examine the notion of the changing ‘institution’ of retirement and its subsequent de‐standardisation. Then, linked to the political economy approach, it is utilised to introduce ways in which employment experiences of men and women impact upon inequalities in retirement. Finally, the article concludes that by employing such an approach to understanding pensions it enables a better appreciation of savings behaviour and opportunities.     

EFFECTS OF RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION AND NEIGHBORHOOD OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURE ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF BLACK AND WHITE YOUTH

The object of this article is to consider the impact of local labor market opportunities on the employment of youth, and to evaluate the extent to which residential segregation is detrimental to the employment of young blacks. In the study, labor force statistics for white and black youth are related to job availability estimates derived from Dun and Bradstreet business data for 74 neighborhood communities in the city of Chicago. The findings underscore the unique role of local labor markets, especially for youth enrolled in school. Job availability has a strong impact on the employment ratio of blacks, but affects the employment of white youth only slightly. It appears, however, that when job availability is controlled, blacks benefit somewhat from segregation. The implications for job redistribution and its possible effect on the racial employment gap are discussed.     

The Influence of Family and Work Characteristics on the Sustained Employment of College-Educated Wives

Abstract

Three categories of work characteristics — employment expectations, job satisfaction, and job experiences — in addition to commonly considered family variables, are examined as influences on sustained employment between 1964 through 1968 for a national sample of college-educated wives, class of 1961. Number of children and husband's income have the strongest, and negative, effects on sustained employment. Additionally, two work characteristics, one work orientation measure (expectation of being employed during the preschool child stage), and one job satisfaction measure (overall job satisfaction) are significant, and positive, influences. No other variable pertaining to wives' work characteristics is significantly related to sustained employment Because the responses in the data set were collected in the 1960s, the data in this article can serve as a comparison point for subsequent studies.     

Household finance management and the labour market: a case study in Hartlepool

This paper reports on the results of a survey carried out in Hartlepool towards the end of 1989. It considers the problems posed by data collection through survey methods to enquire into the management of household finances, and adopts a procedure which first examines treatment of the man's wage, and follows with additional questions about use of the woman's wage, access to personal spending money, and the location of final authority over spending. The data are based on a comparsion between four different groupings with reference to the man's employment status: Group A: couples in which the man has been unemployed for at least the last 12 months. Group B: couples in which the man is currently employed and has held the same job for at least the last twelve months. Group C: couples in which the man has been recently recruited to employment. Group D: a residual group covering any other status, notably early retirement, sickness, disability or student status. An age range of 20–55 was imposed. Marked contrasts were found between these groupings though further variation was introduced by employment for the woman. Broadly speaking there are two instances of heightened financial influence for women: low income prompts female management, whilst women's employment (and therefore higher income) increases joint management. It is in the traditional and declining situation of a sole male earner in which female authority or influence is at its lowest.     

Labour market turnover in Latin America: How intensive is it and to what extent does it differ across countries?

The study of labour market turnover is particularly significant in Latin America, which is characterized by marked economic cycles and limited social protection coverage. This article estimates the intensity of transitions from employment in six countries in Latin America in the new millennium and decomposes the differences observed, furthermore evaluating the employment destinations of workers making such transitions. The countries under analysis show very different turnover rates, which are mostly explained by a dissimilar incidence of informal and temporary employment. In all cases, a large share of job exits imply transitions to precarious jobs or unemployment.     

Transition to Grandparenthood and Job‐Related Attitudes: Do Grandparental Sex and Lineage Matter?

This study investigated the impact of the transition to grandparenthood on employees' psychological involvement in their job, attitude toward retirement, and retirement‐related hopes and concerns, taking into account sex and lineage. The participants were 152 maternal and paternal grandparents who were assessed at 2 time points (approximately 2 months before and 3 months after the birth of their first grandchild) and 76 control participants who completed the same assessments with an interval of 6 months. Both grandmothers and grandfathers were less involved in their job and had more family‐related hopes and fewer retirement‐related concerns about health, finances, and dependence than control participants. The analyses also revealed lineage effects: Maternal grandparents were less psychologically involved in their job and had a more positive attitude toward retirement, in particular fewer fears of uselessness and loneliness, than paternal grandparents.     

Measuring employment vulnerability in Europe

Two of the most notable trends in labour markets in Europe are the rise in the number of atypical job contracts (e.g. fixed‐term contracts and temporary work) and the increase in job turnover. The concept of “employment vulnerability” can be used to describe these trends, which weaken the employer–employee relationship. In this article, the authors measure this employment vulnerability, for individual European countries, by creating two indices – an “employer‐related vulnerability index” and a “job‐related vulnerability index” – which are then aggregated to form an overall employment vulnerability index.     

MANDATORY RETIREMENT AS A CLAUSE IN AN EMPLOYMENT INSURANCE CONTRACT

This paper postulates the existence of an "employment insurance contract" in which firms insure the employment of workers, at a predetermined wage, against potential, age related declines in productivity. To limit its liability the firm establishes an age limit to its promise ––– the mandatory retirement age. It is demonstrated that Pareto-efficient contracts exist which involve mandatory retirement at a specific age. The existence of these contracts, including mandatory retirement, increases workers' life-time utility and encourages the accumulation of human capital. Empirical results are consistent with the predictions of the model.     

MOBILITY FROM PRERETIREMENT TO POSTRETIREMENT JOB

While the normative pattern of retirement is complete cessation of labor force activity, approximately one-third of men work during their retirement. This research focuses on such "working-retirees" by investigating the prevalence and patterns of occupational mobility from pre- to postretirement job, as well as the impact that institutional constraints on (re)employment in later life may have on the chances of occupational mobility. Using data from the older men's cohort of the National Longitudinal Surveys, a sample of working-retirees was extracted from men who retired between 1967 and 1978. Results showed a substantial amount of occupational mobility among the working-retired. The structure of mobility was found to be similar to younger labor force participants in that most mobility consists of moves to adjacent occupational categories. Unlike career mobility of nonretired workers, however, the large majority of moves constituted downward mobility. Using the economic segmentation perspective, log-linear and logistic regression analyses indicated that working-retirees whose preretirement jobs were in the core sector were more likely to experience occupational mobility. As a more specific indicator of bureaucratic control of the labor force, industry-level pension coverage rates were used in the logistic regressions and higher rates of pension coverage were found to result in a greater likelihood of mobility. These results indicate that the considerable occupational mobility experienced by working-retirees is partially the result of structural constraints on the employment of older men.     

Informality in a micro economy: Measurement,composition and consequences

This article measures the extent of – and unrecorded income generated by – informal employment in a micro economy characterized by poor governance. Household survey and census data are used to estimate the number of informal workers in Northern Cyprus and analyse the characteristics of informal employment, for the period 2004–11. Informal workers are mostly comprised of citizens with no social security registration, illegally employed immigrants or second‐job holders who have not registered their second jobs. In terms of value added, the estimated size of the informal economy is 9.1 per cent and 12.2 per cent of GNP in 2006 and 2011, respectively.     

Employment protection legislation and job stability: A European cross‐country analysis

Based on Eurostat data on wage employment for the period 1999–2006, this article investigates the dynamics of job tenure across the European Union. The authors’ analysis shows no generalized decline in job tenure, but a trend towards shorter tenure among young workers (aged 15–24 years) in many European countries. Their regression results indicate that this trend is associated with the weakening of employment protection provided by law and by trade unions. Given young workers’ weak individual bargaining power, the trend towards individualization of the employment relationship may thus affect them disproportionately.