Social indicators,health policy,and the elderly

Health-service researchers, policy analysts, and politicians face several problems in attempting to evaluate health care programs and make relevant policy decisions. The possible rôle of social indicators is discussed in these regards and is applied in an important health care context, the utilization of ancillary health services by the elderly. A Western Canadian research study substantiates the academic and applied value of the social indicators approach with respect to health services planning, research, and policy decision-making.     

Social indicators of human nutrition: Measures of nutritional status

The social indicators movement has neglected indicators of nutritional status. This report presents a discussion of the problems of validity, reliability and precision that plague current measures of nutritional status. Additional concerns for technically feasible and economically sound field methods are also expressed. The advantages of the various indicators are outlined. Indicators to measure the distribution of nutritional status across subgroups are presented. Further researcher is suggested.     

Social indicators in policy planning: Applying the public marketing model in Yuba city,California

This article is a follow up to a paper appearing in the Spring Issue (4) 1977 of this Journal by the same authors entitled ‘Public Marketing: A Suggested Policy Paradigm for Community Development in the City’. In the earlier article a public marketing model was advanced as a device to order socioeconomic needs for planning and policy making in city government. This article provides an empirical application of the model in an actual city. The results indicate that the model is a workable and useful tool for social indicator construction and policy formulation.     

Social indicators: A statistician's view

In the following we consider the problem areas of social indicator research which are of concern to the statistician and in which he can prove helpful. Among these are the purposes of social indicators, what social variables should be considered as conceivable variables related to quality of life, what data should be collected taking in account the difficulty of not being able to directly measure variables of interest, how does one collect the data (which is usually in the form of a time series) guarding against multicollinearity, and how should the collected data be handled and analyzed. We discuss why in social indicator research the secular trends, cyclical movements, seasonal variations and irregular fluctuations must be taken into account. Techniques are discussed for relating lead indicators in one time period to coincident indicators in another period. Finally we present a select bibliography in canonical correlation, forecasting, indicators and index numbers, path analysis, regression analysis, simulation techniques, time series analysis and other areas useful in analyzing social indicator data.     

Social indicators for social planning: The case of Israel

Social planning (SP) is viewed as an organizing framework for guiding government intervention in social life. Social indicators (SI) can provide the informational basis for formulating policies, preparing social plans and evaluating the impact of government activities. Both SP and SI are only two links in a desired sequence of organized social action. But given the present state of the art, the urgency of social problems and the opportunity cost of waiting for further theoretical development-initial efforts should be directed at developing SI for SP. Israel's experience is presented as an example of:

1. The ideological and operational background to specific types of intervention of the state. Within this framework the question arises whether vagueness on the subject of SP can be regarded as the cause of casual and negligent treatment of social problems by government.
2. Specific areas that have been neglected, or that have not been given adequate attention, because of the lack of SI to assist in acquiring an overall understanding of societal changes.

These examples are used as a basis for suggesting some practical possibilities of developing SI and SP in Israel and elsewhere.     

Social indicators, 1976: A critique

Social Indicators 1976 is reviewed from the point of view of its conceptual framework, data presentation, analysis and interpretation, data quality, variable disaggregation and quality of life measures.     

Evaluating indicators for housing policy: Residential satisfaction vs marginal improvement priorities

The research challenges the conventional usage of households' residential satisfaction as a guide for housing policy and development. A new housing indicator, ‘marginal residential improvement priority’, is introduced and is compared with residential satisfaction both theoretically and empirically. Within the context of neoclassical consumer theory it is shown that the former provides a superior indicator of households' housing preferences than the latter. It is then demonstrated empirically that these conceptual distinctions make for significant differences when the indicators are employed in a practical application. Using a sample of 971 households drawn from Wooster, Ohio, the paper considers their evaluations of four general dimensions of the residential environment and six specific features of the dwelling. Zero-order correlations between the indicators average only 0.40 across these ten dimensions. Households' relative satisfaction with these various aspects diverge substantially from the priority they place on improving these aspects in the future, with rank-order correlations not differing significantly from zero. More specifically, all household strata gave public services their lowest improvement priority and dwelling quality their highest, regardless of their relative degree of satisfaction with the dimension. Similarly, most groups gave high priority to improving interior condition and room size and low priority to improving exterior condition, independent of their satisfaction. Thus, if the efficacy of a limited amount of resources invested in a housing policy is to be maximized, they should not necessarily be directed toward those features of the residential environment with which households are least satisfied.     

Social indicators of racial parity

Using the U.S. Census' Social Indicators III (73 indicators) and the OECD List of Social Indicators (33 indicators), a modified Delphi panel was surveyed in two rounds to rank 106 items and 19 “areas of major social concerns” as to how “essential” or “unnecessary” each indicator was in measuring racial parity in the U.S. A hypothesis about how much consensus was reached overall between the first- and second-round responses and hypotheses about comparative views among Academics, minority Advocates and Government researchers-administrators were tested (See Table I). From the second-round returns, the top 15 indicators (selected by the panel) and the 19 major areas of social concerns were analyzed. Secondary data were gathered and built into a Dissimilarity Index. Comparisons were analyzed statistically in increments of 5 indicators (quintiles), and overall to determine how much parity, or equality, between Afro-Americans and Whites had been obtained between the “early 1980s” and the “early 1990s”.     

Political and bureaucratic dilemmas in social indicators for policy making

This paper identifies a variety of political and bureaucratic constraints on the use of social indicators in policy making, including those associated with nonuse, misuse, quantification, and value-weighting. The basic elements in the policy making process are identified as value-conflict, bureaucratic maintenance, and analytic rationality. These elements and the activites of policy making are then related to social indicator research. Means for overcoming the constraints are discussed including: the use of sensitivity analysis, improved communication, a commitment to intellectural pluralism and moral responsibility, and especially improved policy modeling.     

Social indicators of perceived life quality

Modern societies in both developing and developed countries have real and legitimate concerns about the enhancement, maintenance, and redistribution of individual well-being. Indicators of perceived well-being provide direct measures of what societies are trying to achieve, permit cross-sector comparisons, can indicate the adequacy of coverage of ‘objective’ indicators, and can contribute to social policy making. in both the long and short run. Some commentators, however, have suggested perceptual indicators suffer from methodological weaknesses associated with their validity, interpretability, completeness, and utility. Each of these possible weaknesses is addressed in some detail. New research evidence and certain philosophical perspectives are presented, and it is concluded that none of these presumed weaknesses is sufficient to invalidate the development and use of perceptual indicators. Suggestions are made concerning methodological research needed to support the development of indicators of perceived well-being. It is noted that the materials and results developed in the author's research on Americans' perceptions of life quality may be useful for suggesting approaches to the development of indicators of perceived life quality relevant to other cultures.     

Sexuality and human rights: an Asian perspective

In Asia, the lesbian and gay rights movements are clearly dominated by activists, who tend to think in terms of a binary opposition (homo- vs hetero-) and clear-cut categories. Based on "Western patterns," the approach is practical, the arguments based on minority rights. "Coming out" is often perceived as a "white model" bringing more problems than real freedom. On the contrary, "Asian values" put the emphasis on family and social harmony, often in contradiction to what is pictured as "lesbian and gay rights." Homophobia follows very subtle ways in Asian countries. Asian gays have to negotiate their freedom, lifestyle and identities in an atmosphere of heterosexism, and not the endemic violent homophobia prevalent in many western countries. In Asia, one's identity relates to one's position in the group and sexuality plays a relatively insignificant role in its cultural construction. That Asian gays often marry and have children shows the elasticity their sexual identity encompasses. Fluidity of sexuality does not really match the Western approach in terms of essentialist categories that have a right to exist. Most Asian societies can be thought of as "tolerant" as long as homosexuality remains invisible. Procreative sexuality can be seen as a social duty, and heterosexual marriage is often not considered incompatible with a "homosexual life." The development of the Internet has even facilitated the encounters while allowing secrecy. Unfortunately, the traditional figures of transgender and transvestites have often been separated from the gay liberation movement.     

Social indicators in statewide Mental Health planning: Lessons from California

The 1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act stimulated state government interest in assessing local needs for mental health services. In 1973 California began using 22 social indicators to calculate a county-by-county mental health service Need Index used in a formula for distributing incremental mental health funds. California's Need Index is misleading in that 99 percent of its variance across counties is explained by counties' population sizes alone. Stepwise multiple linear regression shows that 99 percent of the residual one percent of the variance in Need Index is explained by a mere five of the 22 social indicators. California's Need Index does not, therefore, represent adequately the factors influencing the need for public mental health funds. Methods for overcoming the defects in Need Index are suggested. Caveats and contextual analyses to guide social-indicator-based allocation of mental health funds are discussed.     

Social indicators of youth development and educational performance: A programmatic statement

This paper argues for the use of social indicators, in conjunction with the traditional norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests, to assess the effects of local educational systems. A conceptual framework for the study of educational performance is presented, interrelating (1) personal resources invested by youth, (2) opportunities for development, (3) developmental behaviors, (4) educational system impacts, and (5) other contextual variables, which together affect (6) progress toward adulthood. Four types of variables and 15 content areas that should be monitored are described, with examples of social indicators for each. Procedures are presented for selecting variables, collecting time-series data, and analyzing and reporting the indicators, relying entirely on existing data sources. Appendices include a data base screening form, a statistic screening form, and a list of United States national, state, county, and city sources of time-series data relevant to youth development and educational performance.     

Social indicators for housing and urban development in Africa: Towards a new development model

Social indicators as a new measuring tool for socio-economic development is a recent innovation. While numerous scholars have applied this new technique in studying the development aspects in developed countries, few scholars have tested this new methodology in Africa. This paper reviews the literature on social indicators and shows how it can be applied to measuring the social progress in urban and housing development in the international, national, regional and local environment. We believe very strongly that social indicators will evaluate the degree of progress that is being made in achieving a wide range of social goals in Africa.     

Social indicators of well being: A comparitive study between students in Bahrain

This study compares a sample of 76 male and 100 female university students with the Bahraini sample which formed part of Michalos's 1984 global study of well-being. Using MDT, temporal changes were explored in students' perceptions of their aspirations and actual living conditions after a decade of major social changes. Within sample comparisons were made between males and females and those majoring in education and business to investigate the differences on the various discrepancies. Regression results were at variance with those of 1984. The Self/Needs gap (person-environment fit theory) had the greatest influence on Life Satisfaction, followed by Self/Wants and Self/Progress discrepancies. The Self/Deserves gap (equity theory) had the greatest influence on Happiness followed by Self/Wants and Self/Progress. The strong influence of social comparison (Self/Others gap) has been presently overtaken by needs and equity. A socio-historical explanation was offered for these temporal changes in students' perceived gaps between what they have and aspire to. This and other results regarding the effect of gender and specializaton on perceived gaps suggest a useful link between wide gaps and objective social indicators. The subjective meaning of Satisfaction and Happiness to a female sample was qualitatively explored. Results highlight the centrality of religion as an ethical, social and cultural idiom. Using the life meaning construct of Zika and Chamberlin (1992), religion seems to provide personal meaning, which in turn mediates to well-being.     

Quality of life in South Africa: Towards an instrument for the assessment of quality of life and basic needs

Conducting comparative quality of life research in a socio-economically and socio-politically divided society such as South Africa is methodologically challenging and worthwhile in that it provides a means for evaluating subtle social changes taking place. This is demonstrated on the basis of a study of perceptions of well-being involving white, Indian and black residents of Durban, South Africa. Survey findings generally reflected the differential social circumstances of the three groups represented in the sample, in particular it highlighted the materially underprivileged situation of Blacks in comparison to the other groups. Drawing upon the experience gained in the study, the rationale is given for developing a research instrument for measuring comparative qualities of life at the national level.     

A study of perceptions of rights and needs in interpersonal conflicts in homosexual relationships

A pilot study was conducted to examine the issues of rights and needs in the interpersonal conflicts of couples of the same biological sexual orientation. The sample consisted of 91 men and 34 women who described conflict incidents that occurred in their relationships. The right most frequently perceived as an issue was participation in decision making. The need most frequently perceived as an issue was power. Issues were perceived more frequently as psychological needs rather than democratic rights. Almost no conflicts were resolved through negotiation.