Agricultural production responsibility system and the work of family planning in the rural area]

With the establishment of the agricultural production responsibility system, the entire agricultural management and economic system has undergone great changes, and family planning in rural areas has met with many difficulties. Because of this responsibility system, households with more manpower seem to become wealthy more rapidly than others. An existing belief among the rural population is that more children will provide a larger labor force and thus more income. Birth control and family planning are therefore becoming more difficult. In order to change existing beliefs, a comprehensive ideological education for peasants is needed so that they may understand the question of birth control from the viewpoints of national interests. Economic rewards and administrative restrictions may be used as necessary birth control measures. Agricultural production and family planning can be managed well if there is close contact and cooperation between the cadres and the masses. Extra care and benefits should be given to women of childbearing age who undergo birth control operations and agree to a single child in each household. Welfare programs for the masses, such as kindergartens and nursing homes must be established in order to reduce their worries. In addition, efforts are needed to study the new situation and solve new problems. The goal of controlling the rural population growth should be achiefed through practical work and experience.     

Emphasizing ideological education, implementing birth control measures and carrying out family planning in an appropriate way]

Since the establishment of responsible production system, certain existing measures for family planning have lost their original effectiveness. At the same time, some changes in the peasants' minds concerning family planning have also taken place. Many peasant families, especially those which have no male child, wish to have more children. In order to solve this problem, family planning work should be done all over again from the lowest administrative level. Through correct population and ideological education, the general public may understand that there is a surplus of agricultural labor and a shortage of arable land at the present time. Secondly, birth control measures, family planning techniques, and training of medical personnel should be improved in order to serve the people better. A full-time working staff for family planning work should be increased so that they may work closely with local people and solve practical problems. In addition, nursing homes should be established and managed well in each commune. All such nursing homes should receive financial support from the State. In the this way, childless aging people may receive proper care after retirement. The worries of those single-child households may also be greatly reduced. The overall resistance met by family planning personnel is thus eliminated.     

On Mao Zedong's thoughts about population]

The historical position for Comrade Mao Zedong's thoughts about population cannot be ignored. History has told us that the Party and Government of China have always treated the problem of birth control and family planning seriously. In 1957, Chairman Mao lectured both inside and outside the Party on the importance of family planning. Regulations were drafted to govern the excercise of family planning. According to these regulations, people who live in the populated areas should be educated concerning the need for and practice of birth control, and they should have children according to family planning regulations. In this way, the overburden for families may be reduced, the younger generation may receive a better education, and they will have sufficient employment opportunities when they grow up. In the areas inhabited by ethnic minorities, and exception should be made as far as family planning is concerned. In general, family planning should be integrated as a part of the overall plan for the development of the national economy. On the need for emphasizing both quantity and quality in population policy, Mao Zedong pointed out that people should learn how to manage material production and how to "manage themselves." Such thoughts of Mao Zedong provide an essential guideline in China's revolution and social construction.     

Acquiring a new birth outlook is an important content of school education]

Besides good administration and technical measures, a new birth outlook from the general public is also very important for all work on population control. Through education, the people will learn to transform their traditional birth outlook to a modern one, based upon the interests of the nation. All schools have the important mission of establishing a new birth outlook through the political, legal, moral, and scientific education of the next generation. Educational methods should be variable and active, step by step through all school levels. Different contents and measures should be taken to educate the elementary school students in order that they may understand national policy, the equality between male and female, and the need to obey laws and regulations. In secondary education, emphasis should be given to the knowledge of population science, general health hygiene, human sexuality, common sense in health care for young people, and the relationship between human lives and the natural environment. For college students, because they are close to marrying age, special attention should be given to the practice of late marriage, late child-bearing, birth control, population policy, and studies of population science. Scientists and educators should cooperate to develop a complete system of educational materials to be used at various educational levels. A new birth outlook among the young generation will be created as a result of school education.     

Understanding and implementing the Party's policies on family planning accurately in an all-around way]

Recently, the Party's Central Committee held numerous meetings to study the problem of family planning. The main goal of these meetings was to find a correct family planning policy, which should be based on common sense, support from the people, and reasonable work from the cadres. Family planning policies and regulations should be realistic and creative. In the implementation of policies, different methods should be adopted for varied situations, and there should also be appropriate guiding principles for different categories. To cope with a new situation, creative methods and approaches should be chosen in order to implement the family planning policy. The correct method will ensure complete implementation of the policy. In family planning work, the first step is the improvement of ideological education, so that the people may have a correct understanding of the need for family planning. In the technical management work of family planning, a constant improvement in the quality of service should be the goal. Through practical working experience in family planning, some rules and regulations will be found, and they should be used to promote the management level and the level of family planning work in general.     

Publicity and education are fundamental to China's family planning programme

This article summarizes and discusses the documents concerning family planning promulgated by the Communist Party, National People's Congress and the Government of China since the start of China's family planning program. In 1955 a document was issued entitled the Directive Concerning Population Control pointing out that the public should be made aware of birth control. In 1965 the summary of the 2nd Conference on Urban Work discussed ways of explaining the significance of family planning, to make it a voluntary action of the people. In 1980 the necessity of 1 child per couple was pointed out and policies were formulated regarding ideological and political education. During the 80's several documents were issued which stressed the voluntariness and initiative of the people in practicing birth control, and that any type of coercion was prohibited. For 30 years the fundamental practice of strengthening publicity and education and opposing coercion has remained unchanged no matter how birth policies have been scored in population control since 1979.     

Uphold and develop Mao Zedong's thoughts on population]

Mao Zedong's thoughts on population were based upon the positions, viewpoints, methods, and basic theory of Marxism, with some adjustments made according to China's practical situation. The population theory of Marxism was developed and used with creative elements. Mao Zedong's thoughts on population can be summarized in three points: (1) An understanding of China's backwar economy and culture and their relationship to overpopulation. There is an urgent need to solve the population problem. (2) An understanding of the close relationship between material production and the reproduction of human beings themselves. A balance between the two should be achieved. (3) Family planning should be practiced so that population growth may be put under control. Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, the Party's Central Committee has reconfirmed and developed Mao Zedong's population thoughts in various important official documents and writings. In such new writings, special emphasis is placed on the fact that with limited arable land, China has to plan its population growth and that family planning should be made part of the national policy. With ideological education serving as a foundation, special administrative actions and economic measures should be taken to motivate and transform the general public. Mao Zedong's thoughts on population and related new developments represent the crystallization of the Party's collective wisdom.     

Theory and methods in China's population policy]

Before 1949, China's population development was noted for its high birth rate, high death rate, and low natural growth rate. After 1949, the death rate showed a large-scale decline, the birth rate was maintained at a high level, and natural growth rate also remained high. Between 1949 and 1973, the natural growth rate was kept above a 2% annual rate. Since then, the need for population control has become increasingly obvious. The theory and methods of China's population policy can be summarized in the following points: (1) material production has to keep up with the pace of population growth, and that means the quantity and quality of the population have to match athe production of materials needed for life and consumption; (2) in a Socialist society, material production and population growth have to develop with well-designed plans; (3) the population question has a direct impact on social and economic development; (4) through enforcement of a national policy, cooperation from different individuals, and ideological education, family planning will gradually be accepted by the general public for the well-being of the country.     

Is it necessary to control the population growth of national minorities]

In the process of Socialist construction and modernization, the development of the population of national minorities deserves our attention because it is directly related to the economic and cultural development in the areas inhabited by such national minorities, and it has a great impact on the welfare and future of those people. Moreover, the population growth of the minorities is a key factor in the national population control strategy. A rapid population growth among the minorities has caused serious problems in distribution of farm land and food supply, low personal income, a rise in the unemployment rate, and a rise in the illiteracy rate. This has prevented a rise in the living standard among the minority population. In order to prevent and solve population problems among the minorities, we must take appropriate measures according to local conditions to control population increases. Through popularization of education, population growth may be put under control. For those people who volunteer to practice family planning, the government should provide all kinds of assistance. At the same time, an effort is needed to introduce the necessity of improving birth quality, to popularize new methods of child birth, and to develop health and medical care for the general public, so that the quality of the minority population may be gradually improved.     

The present task of family planning as suggested by the findings of the National Sample Survey of Fertility]

Results from the 1982 census show great progress has been made in the field of family planning because of close cooperation between the people and the government. Under the influence of the high birth rate in the 1950s and 1960s, a large number of youths are reaching the age for marriage each year, and they are bringing heavy pressure on the population growth. As a result of this situation, family planning work is still urgently needed. A great difference exists between cities and rural areas in family planning work. Economic conditions, cultural and educational levels, occupational characteristics, living environments, and concepts of population growth have contributed to this difference. Henceforth, special emphasis should be placed on family planning work in rural areas, so that the large scale population groth in the countryside may be brought under control. In areas of scientific management, propaganda and education, and technical measures for family planning, modern and and progressive methods should be used in order to reach the national goal of controlling population growth.     

How to carry out work on family planning after adopting production responsibility systems in rural areas]

After the Third Meeting of the Eleventh People's Congress, the entire responsibility for agricultural production was transferred to a lower level. Peasants in various areas have adopted the so called production responsibility system, and the phenomenon of an increased population rate has also appeared in some areas. In this article, the author discusses how to solve these problems created by the new situation. The 1st step is try to control population growth through socialist propaganda education, administrative measures, economic incentives and punishments, and family planning work. The 2nd step is to popularize the practice of having only 1 child per household in the rural areas. The 2nd and 3rd child in each family should be controlled and prohibited. This policy formulated by the Central Government should be carried out thoroughly. Families which follow the policy and have only 1 child should be encouraged with economic rewards, and those families which have 2 or more children should be punished economically. The 3rd step is to establish a national work team to be in charge of family planning and birth control. There should be an ideological unity among the nation's leadership. Party members and cadres should establish themselves as good examples for the people so that the population control work may become successful.     

On family planning and socialist cultural civilization]

Family planning is a very important part of the Socialist cultural civilization, and it has a great impact on the ideology, ethics, and change of moral concepts. The old concept of having a large family and favoring boys over girls has been changed because of the popularization of family planning, and the overall quality of China's population can thus be improved. In the practical work of family planning, construction of the Socialist cultural civilization should be handled well. Science should be developed and taught to the general public, and the traditional ideology concerning birth and population should be gradually changed and eliminated. In this way, people will become more conscious of the need for family planning. In the meantime, efforts should be made to promote social welfare, such as the establishment of more and better daycare centers and nursing homes so that the common worries about family planning can be removed. The people should gradually learn about their rights and responsibilities as citizens and understand that family planning is in the best interest of the whole country as well as for the good fortune of later generations. With close cooperation between the people and the government and with reasonable management of family planning, China will be built into a strong nation with an adavnced Socialist cultural civilization.     

A preliminary survey of specialized households with single children in Tianjin rural areas

A preliminary survey of specialized households with single children in Tianjian rural areas was carried out in order to understand the impact of the economic system reform on family planning programs. Out of 180,000 specialized households, 37,000 are those of young peasants under 35, accounting for 24% of the total specialized households. The survey showed that family planning publicity could be improved in 4 ways. A change in the peasants' concept of childbearing in favor of family planning should be actively promoted. Publicity efforts should be strengthened. Both the content and methods of family planning education and publicity should be improved. Publicity should be integrated with service. Centers of publicity and guidance should become centers of publicity and service. Family planning workers should become close friends of young couples of reproductive age. Education must be integrated with service. A recent trend of having fewer children has set in. This change manifests itself in 3 ways: the state policy of making the people rich greatly encourages young couples to devote themselves to pioneering causes; after becoming rich, the peasants become aware that they should have healthier and better educated children; when the peasants become rich they worry less about their old age and other problems. The recent trend toward early marriage in rural areas should be curbed.     

"Taking full responsibility" should be emphasized in the control of population growth]

Since the establishment of a responsible production system in the countryside, the living standard of the general public has risen constantly, but a new problem in family planning has also occurred. A great many people believe that more male children will eventually provide more labor and thus more income. Consequently, there has been a gradual rise in the birth rate. A crucial problem which needs an immediate solution is how to match the population growth and agricultural production. As a responsible production system is established, an appropriate family planning system should also be established. Married couples of childbearing age should sign contracts concerning family planning and should follow regulations outlined in the contract. Contract violators should be punished with fines, and thoas who follow the contract should be offered economic rewards. Cadres and responsible officials should take full responsibility for reaching the goals set for their respective county, district, commune or brigade, and their people should be rewarded or punished according to their performance. Special care should be given to the old, handicapped, orphans and widows and those who suffer from illness. Households with only one child should be awarded and encouraged with additional benefits. Taking full responsibility is a concept which should be used extensively in agricultural development, production management, and family planning.     

A preliminary inquiry about the problem of second births outside the plan]

In 1981, the population growth in China was revived and showed a new trend towards a rapid increase. In general, the rate of numerous births in one household was down, the rate for a second birth outside the plan was up sharply, and the number for a second birth outside the plan exceeded the number for multiple births in average families. As a result, how to control the second birth outside the plan has become a crucial problem for population control. Under present conditions, numerous births in each household are normally related to the financial situation of each household, the sex of earlier births, and the educationa background of the parents. The current increase in second births is not caused by financial reasons. Instead, it is caused by social and psychological reasons. The traditional belief in favor of having more male children for security in one's old age and for continuation of one's family line is still deeply rooted in the people's minds. In order to eliminate such tradtional influence, more work in ideological education is needed so that the common people may understand the need for birth control and change their traditional view on population. With the establishment of a responsible production system in the rural areas, measures for economic restriction and reward should be taken. In addition, late marriages should be enouraged, and a new tax system based upon population count in each household should be adopted so that additional revenues may be collect for educational and other expenses, and social insurance for old people should be expanded. If all these measures are taken successfully, the problem of second births outside the plan can be solved.     

Some problems about the policy of controlling population growth in China]

This discussion of some problems regarding the policy of controlling population growth in China focuses on the formation and the development of the policies of planned population growth control, how demands of modernization require a policy of only 1 child for each couple, and the need for ideological education as well as essential economical and administrative measures. The process of forming and developing the population control policies of China can be divided into 3 phases: the mid-50s to the early 1970s; the early 1970s to March 5, 1978 -- the date the new constitution became effective; and March 5, 1978 to the present. The 1st formal policy on planned popultion control emerged in 1956 at the 8th national meeting of the Communist party. The necessity for propagating planned birth control and advocating planned birth was recognized at this time. During the 2nd phase, the planned birth program was almost stopped by interference from an anti-revolutionary group. The maladjustment between population development and economic development were getting worse during the 1966-1971 period. Health services in both rural and urban areas were developed, and maternal and child health care services were reinforced in order to lower the death rate and to increase the practice of birth planning. The objective was to adjust the birth rate by improving production development and the living coinditions of the people. The new constitution indicated that the country should advocate and practice planned birth. The special committee on planned birth of the State Council, meeting in June 1978, established guidelines for the national planned birth program. The population policy of only 1 child for each couple was proposed for the longterm benefit of China and its people and because of the urgent demand of the 4 modernizations. The indication of the achievement of the 4 modernizations by the end of the 20th century is a per capita income of 1000 United States dollars. To reach the $1000 figure, the per capita income needs to be increased 3-fold. This is a difficult task, and to realize it effort must be placed on both material production and population control. Problems that may result from the advocation of only 1 child for each couple are reviewed. The way to promote the exeuction of the policy of planned control of population growth is to apply ideological education as the major method and to integrate it with economical and administrative measures.     

Pakistan: FPAP projects reflect integrated approach

The Family Planning Association of Pakistan has conducted a number of projects reflecting the government's integrated approach to family planning. The youth project aims at alerting young people to the need for family planning. A full-scale feasibility scan was conducted prior to implementation of the project to determine the best way to reach people. Volunteers were recruited among college students. The project's strategy for 1979 included organization of a youth leadership national workshop and oratorical contest on the topic, "Whatever your cause, it is a lost cause without population planning." Other FPAP projects include a group of "better living projects" which aim to educate young mothers in child care and family nutrition. Projects in the organized sector include a program at the Pakistan Mint, where a motivation center and clinic are set up. Training projects concentrate on fieldworkers and traditional birth attendants (dais). A 3-day course for dais includes reorientation on septic deliveries, child care, maternity care, and record keeping. In the cities, FPAP has a network of multipurpose centers in slum areas, where adult education and income generating activities are integrated with family planning.     

The family planning work in Yiyang prefecture as suggested by part of the data of the sample fertility survey]

The National Committee on Family Planning conducted a sample survey of fertility in the Yi-yang area in September 1982. The survey was focused on the marriage and fertility status of women between the ages of 15 and 67. Results from this survey show that early marriage is still very popular. Only 40% of those surveyed delayed their marriage to a later age. There is a need to educate the people on the benefits of late marriage. In addition, statistics show that the average fertility rate for a woman was 6.8 children in 1970 and 2.35 children in 1982. This recent figure is still too high when compared with the under 1.2 figure suggested by the central government. Among the total number surveyed, only 77% have taken birth control measures, and the other 23% still have not taken any birth control measures. The phenomenon shows that popular education on late marriage and having children at a later age is still urgently needed in order to further reduce the fertility rate. Married couples of childbearing age should be taught effective birth control measures and knowledge of eugenics with better education for the next generation. In this way, the masses may participate actively and positively in the national family planning campaign.     

人力资本投资：应对“三农”问题的战略选择——关于实施农村人力资源开发工程的思考

转型时期我国农村人口和劳动力对有限农业资源的巨大压力所导致的农村劳动力不充分就业乃是当前“三农”问题本质所在。对农村人口“开流断源”即“转移农民 ,减少农民 ,农民变市民”是应对“三农”问题的根本选择。建议立即启动普及基础教育为主体的“农村人力资源开发工程” :( 1 )由中央财政直接承担农村九年制义务教育 ;( 2 )重建农村合作医疗网点 ;( 3)继续强化农村计划生育 ,切断人口过量增长的“源头” ;( 4 )政府通过法律、法规和政策方面的制度创新保障人力资本投资的公平性。     

Transition of the population reproduction pattern in China]

In the past 30 years, great changes have taken place in the reproduction pattern of the population in China. A historical pattern of a high birth rate and high death rate no longer exists. A new low birth rate and low death rate pattern has now become a reality. It is especially notable that China has realized this transition under the condition of a backward economy. Since 1949, the death rate has dropped rapidly because of advancements in medical care, a rise in the standard of living, and an improvement in public health. The change in fertility, however, is determined by the developing level of social productivity. As mankind has moved forward, population reproduction has gradually become a self-conscious activity. Fertility is increasingly determined by views on marriage and concepts of birth. China has successfully achieved a transition in fertility, and this has to be credited to China's progressive relations in social production and an excellent social system. In addition, practical efforts made by the political leadership, cooperation from the people, and popularization of ideological education on family planning have all contributed to a transition in China's fertility rate.