The Participation of Civil Society Organizations in Public Policies in Latin America

Throughout Latin America, the relationship between government and civil society organizations (CSOs) has been characterized by opposition, substitution, and submission; and, the incipient path to cooperation is barely noticeable. For their part, participatory public policies make sense within a theory of democratic governance. Democratic governance seeks two propositions: (a) participation from other social actors will give rise to more efficient government action; and (b) citizen support will emerge from the said government action. This paper criticizes the current relationships between the governments and CSOs in this region. In addition, it explores the potential strategies that could be adopted were there a cooperation between these two entities. The paper is supported by theoretical literature as well as by a revision of some cases of participatory public policies that are currently active in the region. The paper proposes that the strategies of opposition to government and government substitution have to be abandoned in this region. The paper focuses on civil organizations (CSOs). It is true that they do not constitute the entirety of civil society; however, they are frequently the most organized compared with other civic actors, such as social movements, families, and individual initiatives. CSOs form only a part of the diversity known as civil society; however, they significantly contribute to the discussion about the public good, and very often they participate in providing such goods. The future of participatory democracy in Latin America is related to our ability to achieve a more complete participation of CSOs in the entire process of participatory public policies—from the formation of public agendas to their design, implementation, and evaluation.     

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF RISK AND UNCERTAINTY IN PROVISIONING PRIVATE AND PUBLIC GOODS

This paper uses laboratory evidence from public goods games to examine how in payoff-equivalent situations, decision makers contribute toward private or public goods when they are exposed to different kinds of risks and uncertainties in the provision of these goods. We find that location matters with subjects moving away from the environmental uncertainty in favor of strategic uncertainty when that uncertainty is located on the private good. When the uncertainty relates to the public good, subjects face both kinds of uncertainties on the same good, leading to a significant drop in contributions. An opportunity to reduce uncertainty increases cooperation. ( JEL C90, D81, H41)     

Being the best or doing the right thing? An investigation of positional,prosocial and conformist preferences in provision of public goods

Based on a simple theoretical framework, we show that when individuals exhibit positional, prosocial or conformist preferences which are endogenous, the end outcomes in terms of private provision of public goods can differ significantly from traditional neo-classical predictions. Indeed, when a given individual selects a specific subset of preferences according to what others do, he/she will contribute positively to the public good provision. We provide anecdotal evidence to support our theoretical analysis by using data from an Internet survey on a sample of French individuals. Analyses of individual responses confirm our theoretical arguments. For instance, we show that relative concerns matter, that is, for several environmental goods, people might prefer polluting more in absolute terms but less than others in society. Moreover, we also test whether people exhibit a social desirability bias and show that they attribute more (less) positional (prosocial) concerns to others in society.     

Public goods: An ideal concept

I see the concept of ‘a public good’ as an ideal concept defined by a pair of related characteristics: an opportunity for gain for a collectivity because of nonrivalness in consumption, where the opportunity for gain is difficult to finance because of the nonexclusion possibility. Even at that ideal level, it is impossible to present a solution able to fully realize the opportunity for gain.Given the difficulty of finding a satisfactory solution even at the ideal level, it would be surprising if an analysis of concrete instantiations of public goods would be simple. I will show that economists use at least thirteen concepts to point to economic problems related to public goods. This is more than opponents of the concept ‘public good,’ Malkin and Wildavsky, accuse the economic profession of using.I will reject the conclusion of Malkin and Wildavsky that the concept of a public good is a social construct and thus a purely culturally relative concept. I will concede, nevertheless, that in trying to realize some of the gains presented by goods having public goods aspects, social and cultural preferences play an important role. My conclusion, which justifies the ideal concept ‘public good’, implies that there is potentially a legitimate governmental role in dealing with public goods. Recognizing the socio-political dimension of economics means that one recognizes that the economic reality is complex. It does not justify, however, scepticism about concepts.     

On fairness and welfare analysis under uncertainty

This paper investigates the role of fairness, uncertainty, and a “veil of ignorance” in efficient resource allocation. It focuses on the choice of private and public goods, the method of financing, as well as the choice of information available for public decision-making. A fair-equivalent and Pareto efficient allocation is presented using a maximin criterion defined in terms of individual willingness-to-pay. The paper investigates the role of information in public decision making in terms of its implications for both efficiency and fairness. While better information typically generates improved efficiency, it can also contribute to unfair allocations. The effects of asymmetric information are discussed. Received: 4 May 1998/Accepted: 28 February 2002 We would like to thank two anonymous referees for very useful comments on an earlier draft of the paper. The research was supported in part by a Hatch grant from the University of Wisconsin, Madison.     

Natural implementation in public goods economies

In this paper, we identify necessary and sufficient conditions for social choice correspondences to be Nash implemented by “natural” mechanisms in economies with arbitrary numbers of private and public goods. We find that when there exist only one public good and an arbitrary number of private goods, the Lindahl correspondence is implementable by a natural quantity mechanism in which each agent announces his own consumption bundle of private goods and input vectors for public goods. However, regardless of the numbers of private and public goods, the Pareto correspondence is not implementable even by any natural price ⁿ -quantity mechanism in which each agent reports a price vector of private goods and all agents’ personalized price vectors of public goods, in addition to his own consumption bundle of private goods and input vectors for public goods.     

On the behavioural relevance of optional and mandatory impure public goods

Impure public goods combine a private good with a public good. Often, impure public goods have a charitable or ethical dimension, giving ethically motivated consumers a convenient option to contribute to public goods through the marketplace (in addition to direct donations). Impure public goods could potentially promote ethical giving or alternatively hinder charitable behaviour. We implement an economics experiment with a between-subject design to test the behavioural relevance of impure public goods with only a token (i.e. small) contribution to a public good. Contributions to the public good are negatively affected by the presence of impure public goods with token contributions. We explore one mechanism to offset this negative impact by making the token impure public good mandatory. We observe higher average contributions and several positive impacts on charitable behaviour, which supports the claim that this mechanism can potentially offset the negative impact of impure public goods.     

Multilevel public goods game: Levelling up,substitution and crowding-in effects

In an online multilevel public goods experiment, we implement four treatments where we gradually increase the marginal per capita return of the global public good. First, we find evidence of an increase in the contribution to the global good (levelling-up effect). Secondly, subjects fund their higher contribution to the global good by reducing their contribution to the local good (substitution effect) rather than by increasing total contribution, i.e., the sum of their contributions to the local and the global good (marginal crowding-in effect). Moreover, we observe that total contribution increases as a consequence of the mere introduction of the global good (categorical crowding-in effect). Finally, we observe that subjects continue to contribute to both public goods even when they are dominated in terms of costs and returns.     

Networks of social capital: Extending a public relations model of civil society in Peru

Scholars have argued that public relations can and indeed must be used to improve society. This article builds on the work of Taylor and Doerfel (2005), who advocated for the continued study of civil society through the lens of public relations theory. This study contributes to a normative public relations model of civil society by examining how interorganizational relationships, which may initially be established for purposes of resource exchange, benefit civil society through the creation and maintenance of social capital. The study examined a segment of Peruvian civil society dedicated to media development, as media is a key partner in building civil society (Taylor, 2009). The results of the study help to explain how interorganizational relationships contribute to the creation of social capital in a civil society network, and how certain network positions are integral to maintaining the social capital of a community of actors. Implications for the role of public relations in building and maintaining networks of interorganizational communities are discussed.     

South African NGOs and the public sphere: between popular movements and partnerships for development

This article examines the widespread notion that post‐apartheid democracy can be deepened and civil society strengthened by NGO activities in the sphere of public debate and participation. I focus on a number of interrelated processes which I argue may compromise NGOs' ability to expand the public sphere: first, donors' overwhelming focus on NGOs as the sole representative of civil society may contribute to a homogenous and institutionalised public sphere; second, the tendency for NGOs to be drawn into partnerships with government bodies and corporate sponsors casts doubt on their ability to open up spaces for critical public debate. By directing attention to popular movements as potentially offering a site for the production of critique, NGOs' relationships to such movements are examined. It is argued that attention must be paid to the processes of NGO‐isation and reformism by which NGOs themselves come to define what civil society should be and may consequently contain counterpublic spheres.     

市政债券匹配城镇化建设资金需求的理论分析

城镇基础设施和公共服务等社会公共品理应由地方政府提供,地方政府需要为此筹措长期建设资金。市政债券与城镇化建设相关投资相契合,在城镇化建设融资中具有良好的适应能力,能够在融资安排和风险防范上有所作为,在城镇化发展过程中担当融资主体。并且市政债券能很好地匹配、适应和耦合城镇基础设施建设资金需求的特点,避免其他融资方式或融资工具可能存在的期限错配。市政债券是适合城镇化建设融资、有助于建立多元化的城镇化建设融资体系与可持续的城镇化建设融资机制,从而积极稳妥地推进城镇化的有效融资工具。     

The free rider argument for compulsory union dues

This paper examines the free rider argument for compulsory union dues. The contemporary theory of collective goods does not support the union argument because a free rider problem is not a sufficient condition to rationalize the private use of coercion. The paper evaluates quantitative data on union security and applies the theory of local public goods to union services. The focus is on efficiency aspects of security arrangements.     

Reassessing strategies for financing education in South Africa

The paper outlines some alternative education financing strategies for South Africa that need considering given the growth in enrolments at all educational levels, particularly in the face of the continued recession. It is argued that in the long term, while the eradication of apartheid and the creation of a single education ministry undoubtedly will generate resources that currently are being wasted on a multiplicity of education systems and a bloated bureaucracy, the magnitude of the task facing educationists in terms of student numbers suggests that initiatives other than public sector financing may well be required, A review of policy options being formulated for developing countries is provided. However, the development of such strategies for South Africa must involve a careful consideration of equity implications. One way of addressing the issue of educational inequality is to introduce a redistributive strategy, in which the costs of education are redirected toward the wealthier segments of society. In addition, policy options need to be explored concerning cost recovery, grants and loans and the establishment of an education bank for overall policy coordination.     

Why not ask them? Mapping and promoting youth participation

Recent policy frameworks for addressing the well-being of young people have increasingly adopted a prevention framework that emphasises age-relevant support, a social inclusion approach, targeted assistance for the most disadvantaged, and more avenues for the voices of young people. However, despite the increased policy commitments to youth consultation and participation, there is confusion about the operational implications of such commitments, and implementation across different program areas has been patchy. This paper provides a conceptual framework for understanding the various forms of youth participation, ranging from information exchange to more open and self-managed participation; and the associated rationales for various forms of participation. It is argued that there are three main rationales for greater voice and participation of young people across a variety of institutional settings and policy areas. First is the argument that young people have the right to be nurtured, protected and treated with respect, and where appropriate be involved and consulted. Secondly, it is argued that improvement of services for young people requires their views and interests to be well articulated and represented. Thirdly, it is asserted that there are developmental benefits arising from participation, for both the individuals themselves and for civil society as a whole.     

Regulatory fit effects on perceived fiscal exchange and tax compliance

Paying taxes can be considered a contribution to the welfare of a society. But even though tax payments are redistributed to citizens in the form of public goods and services, taxpayers often do not perceive many benefits from paying taxes. Information campaigns about the use of taxes for financing public goods and services could increase taxpayers’ understanding of the importance of taxes, strengthen their perception of fiscal exchange and consequently also increase tax compliance. Two studies examined how fit between framing of information and taxpayers’ regulatory focus affects perceived fiscal exchange and tax compliance. Taxpayers should perceive the exchange between tax payments and provision of public goods and services as higher if information framing suits their regulatory focus. Study 1 supported this hypothesis for induced regulatory focus. Study 2 replicated the findings for chronic regulatory focus and further demonstrated that regulatory fit also affects tax compliance. The results provide further evidence for findings from previous studies concerning regulatory fit effects on tax attitudes and extend these findings to a context with low tax morale.     

AN EMPIRICAL METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYZING THE PROPERTIES OF PUBLIC GOODS

This paper notes that economists generally accept that locally provided public services behave as Tiebout goods while non-locally provided public services possess the properties described by Samuelson. These beliefs are held despite the absence of empirical evidence supporting this dichotomous categorization. This paper derives an empirical methodology for testing the properties possessed by a public good by noting that only Tiebout goods will necessarily display price/quantity relationships which are consistent with demand theory restrictions. The methodology is applied to a sample of New Jersey suburbs with respect to educational services and non-educational local services.     

The Good Society: Core Social Values,Social Norms,and Public Policy

This essay is an attempt to transcend the contentious political environment by offering a conceptual framework for discussing the outlines of a “good society” and its constituent elements. We offer an argument that is grounded in social theory that identifies a way to develop public policies to remedy long‐standing economic and social problems in American society. The development of public policies that can unify individuals and groups to provide their support depends upon the existence of core social values and shared social norms to realize those values. We proceed by first identifying a set of core social values that we believe most Americans would endorse, and then present a set of guides for behavior that would advance those values. Finally, we propose a series of public policies that are consistent with the core values and social norms and that would help to create what we have called the “good society.” Our assumption is that when a citizenry endorses a set of core values and acts in a fashion that supports those values, the usually divided political factions will be compelled to respond with real solutions.     

Crowding‐in: how Indian civil society organizations began mobilizing around climate change

This paper argues that periodic waves of crowding‐in to ‘hot’ issue fields are a recurring feature of how globally networked civil society organizations operate, especially in countries of the Global South. We elaborate on this argument through a study of Indian civil society mobilization around climate change. Five key mechanisms contribute to crowding‐in processes: (1) the expansion of discursive opportunities; (2) the event effects of global climate change conferences; (3) the network effects created by expanding global civil society networks; (4) the adoption and innovation of action repertoires; and (5) global pressure effects creating new opportunities for civil society. Our findings contribute to the world society literature, with an account of the social mechanisms through which global institutions and political events affect national civil societies, and to the social movements literature by showing that developments in world society are essential contributors to national mobilization processes.     

On equity with public goods

Existence theorems for envy-free and efficient allocations are derived for economies with public goods. For economies with an arbitrary but finite number of private and public goods, an adaptation of the existence proof of Svensson for private good economies is used. For economies with one private and one public good, a case often studied in theory and applications, two more direct proofs are given, using different conditions and taking advantage of the particularly simple structure of the set of envy-free allocations in this case. These proofs are also shown to apply to the case of excludable public goods with congestion.I am grateful to William Thomson, Marcus Berliant, Robert Gilles, Hervé Moulin, Thomas Palfrey, Tomoichi Shinotsuka, Simon Wilkie, and two anonymous referees for their comments. This paper is a revised version of Chap. 1 of my doctoral dissertation submitted to the University of Rochester in July 1988. The financial support of the University of Rochester in the form of the Raymond N. Ball Dissertation Year Fellowship is gratefully acknowledged. All shortcomings of this paper are solely of my own creation.     

Negative reciprocity and its relation to anger-like emotions in identity-homogeneous and -heterogeneous groups

Several studies have shown that social identity fosters the provision of public goods and enhances the willingness to reciprocate the cooperative behavior of group members. Nonetheless, the question of how social identity affects negative reciprocity in identity-homogeneous and -heterogeneous groups has only received little attention. Consequently, we seek to fill this gap by examining whether social identity affects individuals’ willingness to sanction deviating group members in a public good context. Moreover, we devote particular attention to the role of anger-like emotions in negative reciprocity. To test our hypotheses, we employ one-shot public good games in a strategy method with punishment opportunity and induced social identity. Our results indicate that members of identity-homogeneous groups are prone to reveal less negative reciprocity than identity-heterogeneous groups when they face contributions smaller than their own. We also find that anger-like emotions much more strongly influence punishment behavior when individuals are matched with members of different identities than in identity-homogenous groups. These findings contribute to an increased understanding of the nature of social identity and its impact on reciprocity, improving economists’ ability to predict behavior while taking emotions into consideration.