Channel Coordination for a Supply Chain with a Risk‐Neutral Manufacturer and a Loss‐Averse Retailer*

This articles considers a decentralized supply chain in which a single manufacturer is selling a perishable product to a single retailer facing uncertain demand. It differs from traditional supply chain contract models in two ways. First, while traditional supply chain models are based on risk neutrality, this article takes the viewpoint of behavioral principal–agency theory and assumes the manufacturer is risk neutral and the retailer is loss averse. Second, while gain/loss (GL) sharing is common in practice, there is a lack of analysis of GL‐sharing contracts in the supply chain contract literature. This article investigates the role of a GL‐sharing provision for mitigating the loss‐aversion effect, which drives down the retailer order quantity and total supply chain profit. We analyze contracts that include GL‐sharing‐and‐buyback (GLB) credit provisions as well as the special cases of GL contracts and buyback contracts. Our analytical and numerical results lend insight into how a manufacturer can design a contract to improve total supply chain, manufacturer, and retailer performance. In particular, we show that there exists a special class of distribution‐free GLB contracts that can coordinate the supply chain and arbitrarily allocate the expected supply chain profit between the manufacturer and retailer; in contrast with other contracts, the parameter values for contracts in this class do not depend on the probability distribution of market demand. This feature is meaningful in practice because (i) the probability distribution of demand faced by a retailer is typically unknown by the manufacturer and (ii) a manufacturer can offer the same contract to multiple noncompeting retailers that differ by demand distribution and still coordinate the supply chains.     

零售商的资金约束对协调契约的影响分析

在零售商促销下,探讨了零售商的资金约束对使用收益共享契约和回购契约协调供应链的影响。分析了零售商拥有不同运营资金下供应链的契约协调问题,研究表明：在运营资金相对充裕下,收益共享契约不仅能协调供应链,且能实现渠道收益的任意分配,但回购契约不能实现渠道收益的任意分配,除非运营资金非常充裕;在运营资金不足下,收益共享契约仍有可能协调供应链,但回购契约不能协调供应链。讨论了资金的时间价值对两个契约协调供应链的影响,结果表明：在回购契约下,资金利率越大,具有资金约束零售商的供应链被协调的可能性越大,但资金利率对收益共享契约没有影响。最后提供了数值分析。研究中得到一些管理启示,可为资金约束供应链的协调管理提供理论借鉴。     

Supply chain coordination with information design

We consider the coordination of a supplier–retailer supply chain where, in addition to classical contract considerations, a supplier decides the adoption of an information structure (IS) for the supply chain, with a higher-quality IS allowing the supply chain parties to obtain a more accurate demand forecast. Because a wholesale price contract cannot coordinate the supply chain due to misaligned incentives of supply chain parties, we explore what common coordinating contracts in the classical coordination literature can continue coordinating the supply chain with the IS adoption. Interestingly, our analysis appears to reveal the power of simplicity: some simple classical coordinating contracts (e.g., the buy-back and revenue-sharing contracts), though not designed with the IS consideration, still coordinate the supply chain, whereas other more complicated classical contracts (e.g., the quantity flexibility and sales rebate contracts) fail to do so. We derive a general condition for supply chain coordination and show that any contract with a newsvendor-like transfer payment can coordinate the supply chain.     

考虑风险规避的资金约束供应链最优信用契约设计

本文针对零售商的资金约束问题,研究了风险规避的供应商如何通过设计信用契约影响零售商的融资结构。构建了包含供应商、零售商以及银行在内的供应链融资模型,给出了供应商的最优信用契约决策、零售商的最优库存决策以及银行的最优利率决策。进一步分析了供应商的风险规避程度对最优信用契约决策的影响。研究表明：当供应商的风险规避程度低于某个临界值时,供应商偏好提供全额信用,从而零售商的融资结构为单一的交易信用融资;而当供应商的风险规避程度高于该临界值时,供应商偏好提供部分信用,从而零售商的融资结构为组合融资。最后,通过数值算例验证了本文的结论。本研究一定程度上丰富了现有供应链金融的理论研究,为供应链核心企业与银行的决策提供了依据与参考。     

核心企业回购担保下的保兑仓融资决策

作为一种供应链融资模式,保兑仓是解决中小企业融资难问题的重要方案,其借助核心企业的信用,提升了中小企业的信用状况,使得中小企业更容易获得银行的资金支持。然而,随着市场状况的恶化,很多中小企业倒闭,核心企业承担大额银行贷款的连带赔偿责任。本文研究由单一的零售商（中小企业）和制造商（核心企业）组成的供应链中,考虑零售商的破产概率,由银行控制货权,供应商对剩余产品进行一定比例的回购,零售商以银行提供的承兑汇票作为结算工具进行融资的情况下,分析了零售商的最优订货量、供应商的最优回购率和银行的最优贷款利率的决策。并通过算例得出回购率的提高能鼓励零售商订货,提高供应链的利润。但是,回购率对银行利润的变动很大程度上受零售商破产概率影响。较高的回购率刺激信用良好的零售商提高订货量会增加银行的利润,对信用较差的零售商来说,订货量的提高会使银行遭受损失的可能性提高,期望利润反而降低。所以,银行在提供保兑仓融资时,不仅要关注中小企业和核心企业的信贷偿还能力,还要加强贷款资金的监管,关注保兑仓融资的风险。     

顾客策略行为下基于CVaR和回购契约的供应链决策模型

依据条件风险值CVaR度量准则,建立了顾客策略行为下基于回购契约的供应链决策模型,分析了集中式供应链系统和分散式供应链系统中,风险规避供应商和风险规避零售商的决策行为。在此基础上,通过理论求解和数值分析,进一步探讨了顾客策略行为、成员风险规避性和供应链回购契约的交互影响。主要研究结论如下:第一,当供应链成员均为风险规避时,价格承诺可成为顾客策略行为的完美应对策略;第二,最优回购价格受到零售商和供应商的风险规避度的共同影响,零售商的最优订货量随产品回购价格的增加而增加;第三,当且仅当零售商与供应商的风险规避度相当时,回购契约能够实现分散式供应链系统的协调和利润在不同成员间的任意分配,否则回购契约不能实现供应链利润在不同成员间的任意分配。第四,当供应链成员风险规避不等时,零售商的利润分成随顾客对产品估价的增加而增加。同时,风险规避度较小方需要出让部分利润给风险规避度较大方才能够保证契约的实施。     

基于顾客战略行为下的供应链系统的绩效研究

供应链系统由一个供应商、一个零售商和顾客群组成,且顾客具有战略行为特征,其可以选择在一级市场上购买,也可以选择在二级市场上购买。在销售第一期,零售商向供应商提出订购,并在一级市场上销售,期末剩余产品被供应商回购;在销售第二期,供应商把回购产品通过直销渠道在二级市场上进行销售。采用参数分析和数值模拟得出,首先,顾客战略行为对供应链系统订购量、及系统总收益是否有负影响,取决于顾客对二级市场产品接受度。其次,分散管理系统中,通过提供依赖于集中管理系统下的最优订购量的回购合同,供应商能够协调分散管理系统;并且,无论是否存在顾客战略行为,分散管理系统中的最优回购价格均不受影响。最后,零售商是否接受回购合同,依赖于是否存在顾客战略行为,以及顾客对二级市场产品的接受度。     

考虑资金收益情况下的供应链回购契约

在制造商的资金收益率大于零售商资金收益率的情况下,以报童模型为基础,研究了资金收益对回购契约的影响.系统预期利润变为与批发价相关,利用拉格朗日方程求解了满足零售商参与约束、同时使系统和制造商预期利润取得最大值的契约参数.与不考虑资金收益情况下的供应链协调不同的是:订货批量大于相应批发价下不考虑零售商参与约束的最优订货批量;若零售商的保留利润一定,则回购价增大;回购价可以大于批发价,批发价可以小于制造商的边际生产成本.     

Supply Contract Design for Competing Heterogeneous Suppliers under Asymmetric Information

This study considers a supply chain with two heterogeneous suppliers and a common retailer whose type is either low‐volume or high‐volume. The retailer's type is unknown to the suppliers. The flexible supplier has a high variable cost and a low fixed cost, while the efficient supplier has a low variable cost and a high fixed cost. Each supplier offers the retailer a menu of contracts. The retailer chooses the contract that maximizes its expected profit. For this setting, we characterize the equilibrium contract menus offered by the suppliers to the retailer. We find that the equilibrium contract menus depend on which supplier–retailer match can generate the highest supply chain profit and on how much information rent the supplier may need to pay. An important feature of the equilibrium contract menus is that the contract assigned to the more profitable retailer will coordinate the supply chain, while the contract assigned to the less profitable retailer may not. In addition, in some circumstances, the flexible supplier may choose not to serve the high‐volume retailer, in order to avoid excessive information rent.     

需求和零售商购买成本同时扰动的供应链应急协调

供应链的契约协调机制是供应链管理的重要内容,突发事件下的供应链协调机制是近年来的研究热点。 研究了在单制造商单零售商组成的供应链中,假设生产成本是其生产数量的凸函数下,当市场需求为零售价格的非线性函数,突发事件造成需求和零售商购买成本同时发生扰动时,集权、分权供应链应对突发事件的最优策略。 首先证明了稳定环境下的数量折扣契约可以实现该供应链的协调,在集权式决策下,供应链的原有生产计划对突发事件具有一定的鲁棒性,但是当突发事件造成的扰动超过一定幅度时,供应链的协调将会被打破,供应链系统必须改变生产计划才能实现其利润最大化。 在分权式决策下,供应链的原数量折扣契约不能使扰动后的供应链达到协调,因此,设计了新的数量折扣契约来使扰动后的供应链达到协调。最后给出一个算例验证了相关结论。     

不同权力结构下供应链企业社会责任激励

本文以单个供应商和单个零售商组成的两级供应链为对象,假设仅考虑供应商对产品安全方面的社会责任,研究了在供应商主导和零售商主导两种权力配置模式下,供应商履行社会责任程度的差异,以及如何在供应商和零售商间建立合理的契约以激励供应商社会责任的履行。研究发现,相对供应商主导,在零售商主导下供应商会更多地履行社会责任。引入收入共享的事后契约和成本共担的事前契约后,在供应商主导下,两种契约在一定条件下均能有效地激励供应商更好地履行社会责任,但在留存比例与分担比例相等的条件下,成本共担契约的激励效应更强。在零售商主导下,收入共享契约虽能激励供应商的社会责任履行,但因导致零售商的利润下降,故无法达成,而成本共担契约只有在分担足够大时才有激励效应。     

面向模糊随机需求更新的供应链回购契约响应方法研究

针对需求信息更新为模糊随机变量情况,构建了供应链系统在不同决策选择下的获利模型,进一步提出了供应链系统进行决策的乐观主义准则、悲观主义准则和风险中性准则.对于采用回购契约进行协调的供应链,通过分析零售商在不同抉择下的获利情况,提出了修正回购契约参数的可行集构造方法.研究表明,信息更新后,原有的回购契约可能不再适用,需要加以适当修正才能重新实现供应链协调.新的契约在协调供应链同时,能够对需求更新前后,供应链系统的利润变化进行合理分配,体现了“利益分享、风险共担”的供应链管理理念.模拟算例研究阐明了该方法的应用步骤,表明了该方法的有效性.     

Contracting and Coordination under Asymmetric Production Cost Information

We analyze a supply chain consisting of a supplier and a retailer. The supplier's unit production cost, which characterizes his type, is only privately known to him. When trading with the retailer, the supplier demands a reservation profit that depends on his unit production cost. We model this problem as a game of adverse selection. In this model, the retailer offers a menu of contracts, each of which consists of two parameters: the ordering quantity and the supplier's share of the channel profit. We show that the optimal contract depends critically on a surrogate measure—the ratio of the types’ reservation profit differential to their production cost differential. An important implication from our analysis is that information asymmetry alone does not necessarily induce loss in channel efficiency. The optimal contract can coordinate the supply chain as long as the low‐cost supplier's cost efficiency is neither much overvalued nor much undervalued in the outside market. We further discuss the retailer's preference of the supplier's type under different market conditions, as well as evaluate the effects of the supplier's reservation profit, the retail price, and the demand uncertainty on the optimal contract.     

基于CVaR的供应链联合促销的回购契约协调研究

运用CVaR方法,考察了风险中性的供应商和风险规避的销售商联合促销报童类商品的供应链的回购契约协调问题,从讨论中获得一些管理启示。讨论了既定回购契约下渠道成员的最优决策,并分析了回购契约参数、销售商风险规避系数、商品残值和缺货成本等外生参数对渠道成员决策的影响。研究表明传统回购契约不能完成渠道协调,但引入成本分担机制的回购契约能协调不过于规避风险的供应链;指出商品残值和缺货成本对上述结论没有影响,但它们对契约选择空间和能被回购契约协调的供应链的范围具有重要影响。最后,对文中主要结论进行了数值分析。     

Supply Chain Coordination in the Presence of Gray Markets and Strategic Consumers

The practice of diverting genuine products to unauthorized gray markets continues to challenge companies in various industries and creates intense competition for authorized channels. Recent industry surveys report that the abuse of channel incentives is a primary reason for the growth of gray market activities. Therefore, it is crucial that companies take the presence of gray markets into consideration when they design contracts to distribute products through authorized retailers. This issue has received little attention in the extensive literature on contracting and supply chain coordination. In this study, we analyze the impacts of gray markets on two classic contracts, wholesale price and quantity discount, in a supply chain with one manufacturer and one retailer when the retailer has the opportunity to sell to a domestic gray market. Our analysis provides interesting and counterintuitive results. First, a classic quantity‐discount contract that normally coordinates the supply chain can perform so poorly in the presence of a gray market that the supply chain would be better off using a wholesale price contract instead. Second, the presence of gray market can also degrade the performance of the wholesale price contract; therefore, a more sophisticated contract is needed for coordinating the supply chain. We show that contracts that solely depend on retailer's order quantity cannot coordinate the supply chain, and provide the conditions for coordinating the supply chain with price‐dependent quantity discount contracts. We also provide comparative statics and show that when there is a gray market, coordinating the supply chain enhances total consumer welfare.     

大规模定制环境下定制产品与标准产品的定价与库存协调研究

研究了大规模定制环境下需求不确定、对价格敏感且可替代情况下的定制产品定价与标准产品库存量的协调问题.分析比较了在集成供应链情况下和在以大规模定制商为主导的供应链中的定价和库存策略,并提出一种基于收益共享的回购合约.研究结果表明,在以大规模定制商为主导的供应链中,定制产品的价格低于集成供应链情况下的价格,标准产品的库存低于集成供应链情况下的库存,供应链的整体利润要小于集成供应链的利润,基于收益共享的回购合约能够有效地协调大规模定制供应链.     

Coordinating a Supply Chain When Facing Strategic Consumers

This article examines the impact of strategic consumers on the efficiency and coordination of a supply chain. We consider a supply chain consisting of a manufacturer and a newsvendor retailer selling a seasonal product to strategic consumers, who may choose to wait for clearance sales to maximize their intertemporal utility. Under a prenegotiated supply contract, the retailer chooses retail price and ordering quantity simultaneously. After that, the strategic consumers, who may be heterogeneous in their patience levels, make purchasing decisions. We find that strategic consumer behavior can hurt the supply chain efficiency due to severe double marginalization, and that a simple buyback contract can coordinate the supply chain. Nevertheless, we show that the supply chain does become more difficult to coordinate when strategic consumers are present: the set of buyback contractual terms that coordinate the chain shrinks as consumers are more willing to wait, and the chain profit cannot be arbitrarily allocated between the firms. Contrary to popular intuition, this result implies that the retailer may enjoy some benefit from consumers' strategic waiting. In addition, we find that the retailer's gain is the highest when impatient and patient consumers are comparably mixed in the population.      

时间约束下鲜活农产品三级供应链协调

针对一个生产商-分销商-零售商构成的鲜活农产品三级供应链,构造了运输过程中的依赖于运输时间的新鲜度和损耗比例模型,分别求出供应链各级成员的最优期望利润以及收益共享契约协调下的利润分配。研究结果表明:收益共享契约能有效地协调三级鲜活农产品供应链,契约参数Φ在一定范围内可实现三方共赢,且最优期望利润随着需求价格弹性k和运输时间t的增加而减少。最后以数值算例说明研究结果的正确性。     

Competition and Coordination in a Two‐Channel Supply Chain

We study competition and coordination in a supply chain in which a single supplier both operates a direct channel and sells its product through multiple differentiated retailers. We study analytically the supply chain with symmetric retailers and find that the supplier prefers to have as many retailers as possible in the market, even if the retailers' equilibrium retail price is lower than that of the supplier, and even if the number of retailers and their cost or market advantage prevent sales through the direct channel. We find that the two‐channel supply chain may be subject to inefficiencies not present in the single‐channel supply chain. We show that several contracts known to coordinate a single‐channel supply chain do not coordinate the two‐channel supply chain; thus we propose a linear quantity discount contract and demonstrate its ability to perfectly coordinate the two‐channel supply chain with symmetric retailers. We provide some analytical results for the supply chain with asymmetric retailers and propose an efficient solution approach for finding the equilibrium. We find numerically that the supplier still benefits from having more retailers in the market and that linear quantity discount contracts can mitigate supply chain inefficiency, though they no longer achieve perfect coordination.     

The Roles of Bank and Trade Credits: Theoretical Analysis and Empirical Evidence

This study investigates the roles of bank and trade credits in a supply chain with a capital‐constrained retailer facing demand uncertainty. We evaluate the retailer's optimal order quantity and the creditors' optimal credit limits and interest rates in two scenarios. In the single‐credit scenario, we find the retailer prefers trade credit, if the trade credit market is more competitive than the bank credit market; otherwise, the retailer's preference of a specific credit type depends on the risk levels that the retailer would divert trade credit and bank credit to other risky investments. In the dual‐credit scenario, if the bank credit market is more competitive than the trade credit market, the retailer first borrows bank credit prior to trade credit, but then switches to borrowing trade credit prior to bank credit as the retailer's internal capital declines. In contrast, if the trade credit market is more competitive, the retailer borrows only trade credit. We further analytically prove that the two credits are complementary if the retailer's internal capital is substantially low but become substitutable as the internal capital grows, and then empirically validate this prediction based on a panel of 674 firms in China over the period 2001–2007.