Social norms, cognitive dissonance and the timing of marriage

We present a model of courtship in which the timing of marriage is affected by the cognitive dissonance between perceived norms and personal aims. We argue that as long as the family has been the main provider of social protection, marriage has been favoured by strongly felt social norms, and thus people accepted less-than-ideal partners early on in their search in order to minimise the dissonance caused by the non-adherence to the custom. Once the Welfare state has replaced the family, these norms have lost their strength, so that agents can afford the luxury of searching their preferred partners at length without feeling at odds with their social duties. The model yields predictions in line with relevant stylised facts: the raising age of marriage, the prevalence of assortative mating and the common occurrence of divorce in the early years of marriage. We finally discuss the impact of late marriages on fertility, and argue that there need not be negative consequences if the declining role of the family becomes socially accepted, and alternative arrangements are made possible and indeed encouraged by means of an appropriate family policy.     

Cognitive dissonance and risk denial: The case of cannabis use in adolescents

This paper integrates insights from both sociology and psychology into the economic approach of drug use. Within this theoretical framework, the utility provided by cannabis use depends on the ability to deny its riskiness, and this ability is a kind of human capital accumulated through earlier consumption. This assumption is tested with a dataset of French adolescents. A simultaneous equation model is estimated, with one equation for cannabis use, and one for risk denial. The results provide some empirical evidence in favour of the tested assumption, and they also cast doubt on the efficiency of preventive information at school.     

Media manipulation in the Sanlu milk contamination crisis

This study analyzes crisis communication strategies in a transitioning media environment, specifically, Sanlu Group's crisis communication strategies during a quality control crisis in China. Analysis reveals Sanlu manipulated its relationships with local Chinese government and media to reduce media coverage and online searches regarding the contamination of infant milk formula. The case provides evidence that media can be pressured into manipulating information flow through both traditional and online media and suggests a need for additional research on crisis communication in transitioning media environments.     

Sunk-cost fallacy and cognitive ability in individual decision-making

This paper reports on a laboratory experiment aiming at documenting the sunk-cost fallacy in individual decision-making and at identifying the role of the cognitive ability in its manifestation. For this purpose, the design rules out loss aversion and cognitive dissonance, identified by the literature as being the main psychological drivers of the bias. The sunk-cost fallacy is identified by comparing a low and a high sunk-cost treatment, respectively, against a control group that does not incur a sunk cost. There is evidence of a weak manifestation of the sunk-cost fallacy, which is statistically significant only for the high sunk-cost treatment. However, strong evidence of the fallacy was found among the high-cognitive-ability subjects. Finally, although cognitive ability is predictive of status-quo bias, it was not found to reduce the sunk-cost bias.     

Crisis communication: The mediating role of cognitive and affective empathy in the relationship between crisis type and crisis response strategy on post-crisis reputation and forgiveness

This study seeks to contribute to the growing body of research in crisis communication by exploring how two types of empathy; cognitive empathy and affective empathy, affect organizational reputation and publics’ forgiveness for an organization that is in a crisis. An online three (crisis type: victim vs. accidental vs. preventable) × two (response strategy: rebuilding vs. denial) between-subjects experiment was conducted with 648 participants (N = 648) recruited through Amazon’s research tool MTurk. The results of the study reveal that crisis type affects both cognitive and affective empathy and people are more likely to feel empathetic toward an organization that uses rebuilding strategies than an organization that denies the existence of a crisis. Theoretical and practical implications of empathy on corporate reputation and forgiveness are discussed.     

A novel way of responding to dissonance evoked by belief disconfirmation: making the wrongdoing of an opponent salient

ABSTRACT

Based on dissonance theory, we predicted that individuals who supported a political figure (Donald Trump), were exposed to information about his wrongdoings, and believed the veracity of this information would be most likely to share social media that points to incidents in which opponents also engaged in wrongdoing. Participants (N = 409) varying in their support for Trump were exposed to information concerning his alleged wrongdoings (or a neutral article). They viewed a meme of a political rival (Hilary Clinton) that alluded to her alleged wrongdoings, and reported how likely they would be to share the meme (and indicated how accurate they believed the Trump article was). Results supported the prediction, suggesting that dissonance may cause individuals to emphasize the wrongdoings of opponents.     

Measuring stewardship in public relations: A test exploring impact on the fundraising relationship

Though scholars have explored the impact symmetrical relationship maintenance strategies from interpersonal and marketing communication in public relations contexts, they have largely ignored stewardship. Explicated by Kelly [Kelly, K. S. (2001a). Stewardship: The fifth step in the public relations process. In R. L. Heath (Ed.), Handbook of public relations (pp. 279–289). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage] as a core component of the ROPES process of public relations, the “S” or stewardship proposes four elements that foster relationship growth when incorporated into organization's strategic efforts. This study created original scales to measure the impact of reciprocity, responsibility, reporting, and relationship nurturing in the fundraising setting. Results indicate that donors favor these strategies, and path analysis demonstrates they have significant impact on how donors evaluate the nonprofit organization–donor relationship.     

Dropping the ball on media inquiries: The role of deadlines in media catching

Deadlines have always played a significant role in the practice of public relations, especially the media relations specialization. Public relations textbooks and practitioner handbooks encourage budding practitioners to learn how and when journalists, broadcasters, and Internet authors work so that they may pitch story ideas to them appropriately. Even though media catching, an emerging trend in media relations, reverses the traditional direction of story pitching, deadlines are still critical for this new media relations approach. Through a content analysis of 2802 Help-A-Reporter-Out media requests, this study examines how deadlines vary among media outlets engaging in this new media relations story. Statistically significant differences provide insights for public relations practitioners as to how they can best utilize the service to compete for media placements.     

Non-profit organizations bridging the communication divide in a complex South Africa

Purpose

South Africa's post-apartheid governments have made remarkable progress in consolidating the nation's peaceful transition to democracy, but many South Africans still view themselves and each other according to stigmatizing categories. As the country's remarkable and peaceful transition to democracy unfolds, millions, both urban and rural, are still confronted with having to survive unemployment, homelessness, lack of basic services, HIV/Aids, food insecurity and unacceptable levels of crime and violence. Confronted by the complexity of our development challenges, one of our biggest failures is a lack of communication, trust, common purpose, collaborative leadership and sustainable relationships between the various sectors and stakeholders in development. Transforming South Africa's society to remove the legacy of marginalization will be a long-term process requiring the sustained commitment of the leaders and people of the nation's diverse groups. So the question remains: how can non-profit organizations (NPOs) establish themselves as development providers within the uncertain political arena, of which South Africa is characteristic, in order to represent all the masses who cannot speak for themselves and more than often find themselves in a marginalized and stigmatized position?

Principle results

Some Non-profit organizations recognize that their relationships with stakeholders is of great importance for their survival, various forms of communication take place without the necessary planning and without clear objectives for the development of these relationships. NPOs need a positive image and reputation due to financial implications where they do not have sufficient funds to support or market themselves effectively. In this climate of polarization NPOs play a pivotal role in providing a voice to the poor, mobilizing a motion of change and creating a platform for relationships, credibility and trust. Within the theoretical framework of relationship management theory, the interests of all stakeholders are balanced through the management of the stakeholder relationships.

Major conclusions

Non-profit organizations need to ensure that they protect their stakeholders (especially those who are in desperate need of the services rendered by these organizations), deliver better services and although not operating for the purpose of making a profit, manage themselves so that they do generate profit which will enable them to support themselves especially when funding is something that is becoming a rare phenomenon. Although NPOs find themselves in difficult financial times they need to renovate and almost reinvent themselves, in order to be fully capable to address many social problems in SA and to indicate to those who support them (especially financially) that they are to be trusted, committed to make a difference, that they deliver on their promises and to ensure open communication channels with all their stakeholders. NPOs need to manage their reputations which are built on their corporate identities because it is the organization's reputation that often creates a lifeline in uncertain times. If the NPOs succeed in managing their identities effectively, it may serve as the foundation for developing and maintaining relationships with their respective stakeholders which in turn could change the face of South Africa's society. These organizations might go about creating a platform for dialog in an attempt to build sustainable productive relationships that can go about uplifting and empowering those who would otherwise not have such an opportunity.     

Evaluation of international and non-governmental organizations’ communication activities: A 15 year systematic review

The purpose of this paper is to understand how intergovernmental organizations and international non-governmental organizations have evaluated their communication activities and adhered to principles of evaluation methodology from 1995–2010 based on a systematic review of available evaluation reports (N = 46) and guidelines (N = 9). Most evaluations were compliant with principle 1 (defining communication objectives), principle 2 (combining evaluation methods), principle 4 (focusing on outcomes) and principle 5 (evaluating for continued improvement). Compliance was least with principle 3 (using a rigorous design) and principle 6 (linking to organizational goals). Evaluation was found not to be integrated, adopted widely or rigorously in these organizations.     

Job demands,emotional dissonance and elderly abuse: The moderating role of organizational resources

ABSTRACT

The present study focuses on elderly abuse committed by caregivers in nursing homes. It aimed at a better understanding of neglect and abusive behaviors by considering the working context and the emotional dissonance of these professionals. To achieve this goal, direct effects of emotional dissonance, job demands (workload and emotional demands) and organizational resources (high-quality relationships with the colleagues and the supervisor) on neglect and abusive behaviors were analyzed. Moreover, the moderating role of organizational resources was explored. The study was conducted among 481 nurses and healthcare assistants from different French nursing homes. Overall, results contributed to the literature by pointing out the impact of emotional dissonance and caregivers’ working context on neglect and abusive behaviors. Moreover, results highlighted the moderating effect of high-quality relationships with the colleagues and the supervisor and give rise to potential implications in preventing elderly abuse in nursing homes.     

Examining signs of recovery: How senior crisis communicators define organizational crisis recovery

Interviews with senior crisis communicators explore how crisis recovery is defined and what role publics and organizational communication and characteristics play. Findings reveal recovery is measured operationally and short-term. Effective communication proactively addresses failures, is transparent and honest while positive, focuses on future directions, and rebuilds and repairs symbolic damage. Organizational best practices include tested values and crisis leadership. Publics can facilitate healing, highlight victims’ voices, and provide recovery evidence.     

Comparing the two sides of the nonprofit organization–donor relationship: Applying coorientation methodology to relationship management

Although public relations scholars recommend practitioners strive for symmetry in their communication programming, scholarship on the organization–public relationship has abandoned the push for symmetry despite potential problems that could emerge when the organization and publics have different viewpoints. Using the coorientation methodology, this study found that even though fundraisers and donors at a West coast hospital viewed their relationship positively, the differences in the evaluations leave room for the organization to devise strategies to improve the relationship status.     

Examining the expertise,experience, and expedience of crisis consultants in Singapore

By most accounts, crisis preparedness in organizations globally has been appalling (0035 and 0250). The situation is no different in Singapore (Wu & Dai, 2001). With crisis expertise often lacking from within organizations, many resort to engaging public relations (PR) agencies to help. This study, which is inspired by Frandsen and Johansen's (2008) study in Denmark, aims to evaluate the contributions of consultants from PR agencies. Adapting indicators to assess professionalism proposed by Lages and Simkin (2003) and Sallot, Cameron and Lariscy (1997) and integrating them with variables from the contingency theory (Pang, Jin, & Cameron, 2010), this study seeks to examine: (1) the level of expertise of consultants in offering crisis management consultancy; (2) the level of experience of consultants offering crisis management consultancy; and (3) the value and expedience of the consultancy services offered. Findings showed that agencies in Singapore hired consultants based on skills such as writing, speaking and ability to manage the media. For some, lack of direct experience was compensated by in-house training. International agencies appeared to have an advantage over the local agencies by virtue of their access to expertise and knowledge from their international network. However, as the majority of agencies had only managed few crises, it was difficult to assess the value these consultants added. Studies examining consultants in PR agencies are rare. It is hoped this study would trigger research around the world.     

More than just the media: Considering the role of public relations in the creation of sporting celebrity and the management of fan expectations

This article considers the complex nature of sporting celebrity and the role of media and public relations in the creation of both sports celebrity and the fan expectations associated with that celebrity. While public relations literature has traditionally considered PR as a promotion and communication tool, this article acknowledges that in the cultural and ideological world of sport, PR has a much more sophisticated role to play. In the event of either positive or negative media attention, a sporting celebrity is subjected to unprecedented scrutiny and the increasingly high expectations of fans. However, the expectations of fans are not based on the simple notion of hero worship and role models, and this exploratory study suggests that fans are capable of very complex reactions to the behaviours and marketing personas of sporting celebrities. The use of PR in sport deserves close examination and the reactive spin doctoring techniques of the past should give way to the strategic integration of public relations and media planning in both the creation of the sporting celebrity, balancing the sport vs. private sides of that celebrity, and the varying fan expectations associated with each.     

The effects of public's cognitive appraisal of emotions in crises on crisis coping and strategy assessment

This study tested a cognitive appraisal model that examines the variance in publics’ emotional responses, strategies of coping with crises, and acceptance of different organizational crisis responses, as a function of publics’ appraisal of crisis predictability and controllability. A within-subjects experiment was designed to induce participants’ primary negative emotions (i.e., anger, sadness, and fright, and anxiety), which were found to have differential influences on publics’ coping strategy preference and organizational crisis strategy acceptance.     

Identifying the best practices of media catching: A national survey of media relations practitioners

Web-based services, like Help-A-Reporter-Out (HARO), that allow journalists to send content requests to a multitude of public relations agents are becoming more popular among media relations practitioners. The purpose of this study is to examine how practitioners are using HARO and to measure success rates of media placements against the proposed best practices of “media catching”. An online survey (n = 110) was conducted of members of Public Relations Society of America who identified themselves as working in media relations. Analysis revealed five best practices that had a positive significant correlation to journalist response rates and placement success rates. The results also indicated what media outlets practitioners preferred to reply to using the HARO service. As more practitioners are integrating media catching services in their daily routine, it is important to ensure they are employing best practices in order to develop and maintain positive working relationships with journalists.     

The role of cognitive distortion in online game addiction among Chinese adolescents

The aim of the present study was to examine the role of cognitive distortions in the development of on-line game addiction among Chinese adolescents. In Study 1, the sample comprised 495 adolescents aged 12 to 19 who recruited from two middle schools in Guangzhou, China. They were administered questionnaires relating background variables, the Internet Addiction Scale (IAS), Cognitive Distortions Scale (CDS) and Online Game Cognitive Addiction Scale (OGCAS). In Study 2, Twenty eight adolescents with excessive on-line game play recruited from a local mental hospital were randomly divided into to a CBT group (N = 14) and a clinical control group (N = 14). Measures of severity of on-line game playing, anxiety, depression, and cognitive distortions were assessed on baseline and after the 6 week intervention. Results of the present study showed that rumination and short-term thinking were the most predictors of online game addiction, and all-or-nothing thinking predict online game addiction at marginal significant levels. Males are at a greater risk of developing online game addiction than do females. CBT and basic counseling had different treatment effects on the all-or-nothing thinking scores, online comfort scores and short-term thinking scores, SDS scores and SAS scores. Interestingly, CBT and basic counseling had similar treatment effects on IAS scores and OGCAS scores. Applications of these findings to etiological research and clinical treatment programs are discussed.     

Telling your own bad news: Eliot Spitzer and a test of the stealing thunder strategy

This study explored the concept of stealing thunder, or telling your own bad news. Unlike previous research which used surveys and experiments, this study examined actual news coverage following crises that involved individuals. One case study compared media coverage of two New York governors while the second case study compared media coverage of a high profile athlete and a late night talk show host. In each of the two studies, one of the individuals in crisis stole thunder from reporters by revealing negative information before the media did; while the other person in crisis engaged in silence and allowed the media to break the story. Results indicate there may be an association between stealing thunder and the amount of news coverage one receives. Both studies found that the source who stole thunder received considerably less news coverage than the source who did not. Additionally, results from both studies showed that stealing thunder was associated with more positively framed stories and headlines and fewer negative media frames.     

Spinning out the asbestos agenda: How big business uses public relations in Australia

Although health warnings associated with asbestos were first documented in 1898, by 2020 there are expected to be 60,000 deaths associated with asbestos in Australia. This paper examines how Australia's dominant asbestos producer's used public relations to limit media coverage and influence government policy related to its asbestos liabilities. It then traces the company's failures to manage the resulting crisis when external stakeholders and media interests became alerted to the corporation's agenda.