INTRODUCING OR/MS INTO ORGANIZATIONS: NORMATIVE IMPLICATIONS OF SELECTED INDIAN EXPERIENCE*

There is considerable evidence that firms and institutions that have adopted and utilized operations research and related management sciences (OR/MS) experience severe internal disruptions and changes as the new technology is introduced. In some cases the reactions have been adverse enough to result in temporary rejection of the technology and a period of three to five years has been necessary for reintroduction of OR/MS. Such lags represent lost opportunities with attendant costs that firms and institutions can ill afford. There is obvious need to manage the introduction of OR/MS into organizations to minimize the inevitable resistances to change and to expedite institutional acceptance and practice. This paper presents a normative framework for this purpose based on four case studies of Indian implementation experience. The selected firms, which represent different sectors of industry, adopted different strategies for introduction and diffusion of OR/MS. The authors have noted several points of similarity between the Indian experience and the experience of U.S. organizations which indicate a fair measure of general validity for the proposed normative framework.     

Doing something about the weather

Recent developments in weather forecasting have created the potential for the operations research and management science (OR/MS) community to have a tremendous impact in distilling weather information into valuable decision tools. Weather-sensitive applications include transport, electric utilities, agriculture, and public emergency management. This article surveys existing research and practice using OR/MS tools to integrate weather forecasts in decision-making. Because the conditions that created the potential for OR/MS contributions—in particular an explosion in the amount of relevant forecast data—are quite recent, the amount of existing OR/MS work is modest. This article also describes promising but unexplored research opportunities for the OR/MS community.     

Mapping the changes in management science: A review of ‘soft’ OR/MS articles published in Omega (1973–2008)

The paper proposes a framework to map the development of management science (MS) and uses it to survey the MS literature published in Omega, the International Journal of Management Science. The management science discourse over the last 35 years is mapped in four paradigms: (1) optimisation/normative; (2) interpretative/learning; (3) critical; and (4) a post-modern management science approach. Using a set of keywords and authors’ names associated with the main features of each MS discourse, articles published between 1973 and 2008 are grouped. Results seem to suggest that Omega, a US-based journal, has been mainly developing publications under the optimisation paradigm; only very few papers adhering to the interpretative/learning and critical paradigms have been given space in Omega. The handful of papers from the interpretative paradigm are seen as attempts of UK-based academics to open some space for ‘soft’ operational research (OR) or ‘problem structuring methods’ in a positivistic outlook that seems to pervade US management science practice. Results of the survey and features of MS literature published in Omega are discussed. The paper aims to raise awareness amongst management scientist, systems and operational researchers of the differences between the MS/OR practice in both countries.     

OR/MS methodology—A conceptual framework

Many authors deal, explicitly or implicitly, with OR/MS methodology and the term ‘methodology’ has gained such an inclusive connotation that it comes to denote nothing in particular. This has diluted the analytical precision of OR/MS ‘methodology’ as well as its practicability. Therefore an attempt to form a conceptual framework for OR/MS methodology will be presented. This framework consists of seven components addressing specific methodological aspects: each component has specific properties which distinguish it from the others; all of them together form a consistent hierarchy suitable to aid the successful development and implementation of OR/MS methods.     

Complex problems with multiple stakeholders: how to bridge the gap between reality and OR/MS?

The world becomes increasingly complex and problems tend to be broader and multidisciplinary. At the same time, OR/MS research seems to be narrowing down, building even more on analytical models. The flip side is the risk that OR/MS is increasingly diverging from reality and that its dominant paradigm becomes insufficient to guide us in understanding and solving complicated real-world problems. A methodology that allows a broader insight into exploring a complex system’s behaviour is urgently needed to guide OR/MS analytical models. We propose system dynamics as a methodology to link reality with the dominant OR/MS paradigm of narrowly focused and highly analytical models.     

From Intended to Actual and Beyond: A Cross‐Disciplinary View of (Human Resource Management) Implementation

Despite increasing interest in human resource management (HRM) implementation as an explanation for the association between HRM and firm performance, considerable confusion remains about what implementation means. In order to develop conceptual definitions of HRM implementation and implementation effectiveness, this study builds on three different literatures outside the HRM field (strategy, innovation, and change management), which have addressed this topic extensively. As a result, implementation is characterized as a dynamic process, involving the interaction among multiple actors, starting with the adoption of a new practice and ending with its routinization. This is distinguished from implementation effectiveness as an outcome of that process. The study helps to achieve construct clarity, hence providing a more solid basis for future research and allowing for a better consolidation of findings. The authors also develop an agenda for further research by reviewing a number of theoretical and methodological approaches that have been used in implementation research across fields, including HRM. Overall, the study aims to establish implementation research as a highly relevant academic and practical quest not only in HRM, but also in other management literatures.     

Voices and values: Linking values with participation in OR/MS in public policy making

It is now widely accepted that public policy development requires both an appreciation of public values and an ability to involve insights from local people. Operational research (OR) has made some contributions to public policy development, and there has been a call to use problem-structuring methods (PSM) in this environment. This growing need for greater use of OR/management science (MS) in policy making is due to its ability to work with insights that are sometimes hard to pin down. This paper presents some research about values and local people's voices in public policy making, which the authors believe present a challenge to OR/MS and to the use of PSM. The paper will describe a framework for understanding values and exploring insights into including local voices in policy making using PSMs. Key to the framework is in the emphasis on differences, rather than similarities, in value priorities. A case study in which local people as well as decisions makers and politicians were engaged in a process to decide the future of a local hospital will be described.     

Cybernetics and the management science process

This paper addresses methodological issues currently confronting the management science community. The urgency of these issues is evidenced by [1] the growing debate over the implementability of MS/OR (Management Science/Operational Research) models, [2] the absence of professional agreement on a ‘generalized’ theory of organizational structure and control and [3] the dearth of substantive contributions in the area of ‘policy’ analysis and modeling. It is argued that any resolution of these issues must address the management science process and that developments in cybernetics provide an integrating framework for this purpose. Aspects of this framework are presented by pointing out distinctions between the more traditional MS/OR approaches and the proposed cybernetic approach. Some of the concepts involved are not always associated with cybernetics, but the implications for the practice of management science are significant.     

The practice of operations research in Malaysia and Singapore

This paper examines various aspects of the use of computer-based operations research (OR) in organisations in Malaysia and Singapore. It discusses the extent of adoption of OR techniques, the frequency of use, the types of management decision on which the techniques are deployed and the functional areas using them. The extent to which computer availability has encouraged the use of OR, and the hardware and software support in the implementation of OR are considered. Also, the characteristics of the OR practitioners, implementation difficulties encountered and the management user's perception of the usefulness of OR techniques are studied. Further, reasons for nonusage and the prospects for OR in Malaysia and Singapore are explored. Finally, directions for further research that have not previously been raised are suggested. In general, the patterns of OR usage in these newly industrialising countries of south-east Asia are dissimilar to those in the developed countries.     

Ethics beyond the model: How social dynamics can interfere with ethical practice in operational research/management science

Responding to a call for more attention to be given to ethics within operational research, Marc Le Menestrel and Luk Van Wassenhove have recently outlined a perspective on the relationship between OR models and ethics that squarely ties ethical engagement to daily practice and, more specifically, to the manner in which a practitioner uses a model or other technique in a particular setting. They refer to this approach as “ethics beyond OR models”.This paper seeks to extend the debate on this topic by examining some of the difficulties of ethical action when it is defined in these terms. Specifically the paper seeks to show how the social dynamics that circumscribe much professional practice can easily override good intentions on the part of the people concerned. Ethical practice dictates that those involved in OR/MS practice should seriously contemplate their own involvement in the process of knowledge production and be fully aware of the wider ramifications of employing particular modelling techniques and other tools. However, this is not always easy since the complex social dynamics that surround an inquiry can surreptitiously undermine these intentions. In extreme cases, these processes can create an ethical trap that those involved may not be fully recognise until after the event.In exploring such a disjuncture between ethical intentionality and outcomes the paper re-examines and reflects upon a major consulting assignment which was led by the author and subsequently published through a leading journal and text.     

Mathematics in management—How it looks to the manager

This paper begins by looking at the relationships between mathematics, statistics, OR (operational research) and management. It then examines a number of difficulties in the application of mathematics to management—difficulties of prediction, of determining an optimal solution, and of implementation. In connection with implementation, it discusses the position and attitudes of line managers, and the implications of these for the training of OR practitioners. Finally, an attempt is made to distinguish areas of application of mathematics in management by reference to the scale of resources at stake, the complexity of the problem, and the adequacy of the predictive data.     

Ackoff's Fables revisited: stories to inform operational research practice

This paper considers Ackoff's Fables, a set of short stories published by Ackoff in 1978 as guides to creative problem solving. The paper argues that storytelling of this kind contributes usefully to management and MS/OR education, before addressing how such Fables might be interpreted. It is demonstrated, using one of Ackoff's Fables, The Smart Jackass, for illustrative purposes, that interpretation of even apparently straightforward stories such as these is not unambiguous. The Fables can be interpreted in a multitude of different and sometimes contradictory ways, and the truths they might contain are not self-evident. Yet, as the basis for discussion, they still have much to offer as educational tools. The paper concludes with a discussion of literal truth in stories, and presents a classification of story types according to their relationship to literal truth.     

Ethics in Operations Research and Management Sciences: A never-ending effort to combine rigor and passion

From practice to theory, we introduce a state-of-the-art stream of papers that promotes an inclusive and complementary consideration of both analytical methods and ethical values in Operations Research and Management Sciences (OR/MS). We suggest a perspective according to which the consideration of ethics in OR/MS constitutes an enrichment of our discipline as well as a contribution to a more sustainable future in general.     

Learning from mixed OR method practice: The NINES case study

Despite continued interest in the use of mixed OR/MS methods, limited attention has been paid in the literature to generic lessons that could be gained from mixing methods in practice. Many organisational problems demand the use of a mixed method approach and thus recognising and sharing lessons could prove beneficial to both practitioners and researchers. This paper reports on an in-depth evaluation of a case study involving risk identification and quantification of the Northern Isles New Energy Solutions (NINES) project which sought to trial and plan a new energy system. The intervention involved a mixed method approach and client feedback on the efficacy of the approach was sought. The evaluation reported in this paper is carried out using a set of themes taken from the literature and seeks to highlight transferable lessons. The set of lessons that emerge are presented along with their implications for both general OR modelling practice and the specific situation of mixing OR/MS methods. The paper concludes by discussing the implications of the work and directions for future work which will be of interest to both practitioners and researchers interested in mixed method OR/MS work.     

Risk and Planning in Agriculture: How Planning on Dairy Farms in Ireland Is Affected by Farmers’ Regulatory Focus

This article examines how planning on dairy farms is affected by farmers' motivation. It argues that farmers' choice of expansion strategies can be specified in terms of risk decision making and understood as either prevention‐focused or promotion‐focused motivation. This relationship was empirically examined using mediated regression analyses where promotion/prevention focus was the independent variable and its effect on total milk production via planned expansion strategies was examined. The results indicate that promotion focus among farmers has an indirect effect on farm expansion via planning strategies that incur greater risk to the farm enterprise. Regulatory focus on the part of farmers has an influence on farmers' planning and risk management activities and must be accounted for in the design and implementation of policy and risk management tools in agriculture.     

HR policies and practices in vocational education and training institutions: understanding the implementation gap through the lens of discourses

Vocational education and training (VET) institutions face serious challenges, like educational innovations and upcoming teacher shortages, which require them to invest in their human capital. However, the implementation of human resources (HR) policies and practices often stagnates. Using the Dutch VET sector as an exemplary case, we show that the implementation gap can be understood by employing a discourse perspective. The distinction between a control vs. a commitment approach to HR served as a lens through which we analysed how actors at state and school level perceived the goals, necessity and features of HR policy. The results reveal no contradictions between actors concerning the goal of HR. Contradictions are, however, found related to the way in which HR should be shaped and implemented. Teachers and managers think governments’ view about HR is too much control oriented and that commitment strategies have to be added for HR to be effective.     

Bridging the awful gap between strategy and action

This article describes the lessons learned from a study carried out within British Telecommunications as part of the author's doctoral research programme. It was found that strategy was formulated and implemented, with direct action taken and resources commited, by Divisional managers at all three organizational levels in BT so that implementation did not always follow the lines intended by the HQ strategic planners. Implementation was found to be an interactive rather than a rational/sequential process. Marked variations in practice were observed and explanations for these are offered. The relative success of the strategies differed widely, both overall and within the divisional field units. The manner of implementation and factors managers perceived to help and hinder it were studied. Success or failure was felt to hinge on getting a few basics right: resources, organizational ‘fit’, historical performance and the expectations it generated (track record), information and support, market acceptance, technical competence, consistent goals and top management support.     

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PRODUCTION INNOVATION*

In a study of the implementation of production innovation using a social learning theory focus, four organizations were monitored with a real-time study design. The following propositions were strongly supported: (1) During the initial implementation period (3–4 months), the stress felt by personnel in new user organizations was significantly higher (p < .01) than for organizations previously experienced with technology; (2) Firms experienced with the new technology obtain early success when compared with inexperienced firms (p < .01). Moderate support was found for the proposition that new users rely heavily on original equipment manufacturers for demonstration to acquire new skills, but gradually models within the user organization emerge as the dominant influence. The proposition that new users have significantly higher imitation scores than users experienced with the technology was only weakly supported. No substantive or significant changes in the attitudes of users toward the innovation were found during the first three to four months of the implementation period. These and other results suggest that longitudinal studies of this type ought to be carried out over periods in excess of 2 1/2 years. Implications for the management of change are presented.     

The theory of constraints: a methodology apart?—a comparison with selected OR/MS methodologies

Mingers (J. Oper. Res. Soc. 54 (2003) 559; Int. Trans. Oper. Res. 7 (2000) 673; J. Mingers, A. Gill (Eds.), Multimethodology: Towards the Theory and Practice of Combining Management Science Methodologies, Wiley, Chichester, 1997), Mingers and Brocklesby (Omega—Int. J. Manage. Sci. 25(5) (1997) 489; Systemist 18(3) (1996) 101) and others have sought to develop classificatory frameworks that would be useful in understanding the nature and characteristics of Operational Research/Management Science (OR/MS) methodologies and the philosophical assumptions underpinning them. This paper extends their work to the domain of methods and methodologies known as the Theory of Constraints (TOC). In particular, the paper helps position TOC methods and tools in relation to traditional OR/MS methodologies, methods and tools, and provides a basis for continuing multi-methodological development across the two domains.The paper concludes that the tools, techniques and methods of TOC can be viewed as a methodological set of complementary hard and soft tools and methods that contribute to all phases of activity and across all three social, personal and material dimensions of the Mingers–Brocklesby framework, and share the ontological and epistemological characteristics and assumptions of extant OR/MS methodologies.     

DEMAND MANAGEMENT: THE EVALUATION OF PRICE AND DUE DATE NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES USING SIMULATION

The research considers the problem of demand management in a firm where the firm's historical delivery service level reputation influences the number of quotation requests from its potential customers. Customers have a maximum and the firm has a minimum net price to due date tradeoff curve for each job. The demand management function bargains with the customer over price and promised due date. Bargaining finishes either with an agreed price and delivery date or with the customer refusing the firm's bid and placing the order elsewhere. The firm's objective is to maximize its long-term net revenue. The firm's demand management negotiation strategy guides this bidding process. The research demonstrates the use of simulation to test different demand management bidding and negotiation strategies for different market and firm scenarios. The demonstration uses 16 scenarios to test the different demand management negotiation strategies with a model of a classical job shop in a classical market. The investigation examines finite scheduling-based due date estimation methods, as well as the more traditional parameter-based methods. This demonstration shows that it is possible to test different bidding policies, using a simulation model of a firm and its customers, and to obtain usable results.