Literature Review: Identity Construction in the Context of Being a Minority Immigrant Religion: The Case of Western-born Muslims

This paper seeks to assess when and how the Lebanese Diaspora in Australia, Canada and the USA is most able to affect homeland affairs in Lebanon. Drawing on over 300 in-depth interviews and analysing literature on the Lebanese Diaspora and Lebanon itself, the article seeks to categorise the spectrum of diaspora engagement with Lebanon and more fully define the diaspora's homeland participation. Tentative conclusions indicate that the Lebanese Diaspora is most able to affect homeland affairs when the state is absent or unable to perform its functions as well as because the various political factions do not want a state built. However, to date, despite its renowned strength, the Lebanese Diaspora has not been able to affect change in the sectarian nature of Lebanese homeland politics nor in the too often replicated sectarian politics in the diaspora. We conclude that the diaspora is thus both strong and weak vis-à-vis affecting homeland public affairs.     

Mobility and social capital among Lebanese and Beninese entrepreneurs engaged in transnational trade

This contribution focuses on importers of second-hand cars operating between Brussels, Belgium and Cotonou, Benin. Intensive multi-sited field-work reveals important differences in the way Lebanese and Beninese car importers operate in this import–export business and how they circulate between Europe and West Africa. This paper, through a comparative approach, describes and explains those differences.

A first level of explanation is linked to the fact that car importers working in Cotonou come primarily from two different communities. On the one hand, Lebanese car importers operate inside a trade diaspora, never needing to travel because they are able to rely on other Lebanese to send them second-hand cars from Brussels and to collaborate at different levels of the trade chain. On the other hand, native Beninese car importers have the status of cross-border entrepreneurs working in a territory of movement. They must themselves travel to Europe to obtain their second-hand cars, thereby maintaining a double involvement in Europe and West Africa.

A second level of explanation can be found in the evolution of the Euro-African second-hard car import–export business, a trade pioneered by Lebanese entrepreneurs. What began as a fragmented activity became formalised in business hubs, such as Brussels. This centralisation allowed the arrival of new types of car importers, like the Beninese, on the market. However, unlike the Lebanese, these newcomers could not rely on settlements of fellow-countrymen located in multiple business markets and had low levels of trust between each other. To this day, they have failed to mobilise the capital necessary to work in the same conditions as the Lebanese.

What distinguishes Lebanese and Beninese second-hand car importers? The analysis shows that it is their ability to recreate trust in a context of high uncertainty. This issue of trust has a direct impact on the way both types of importers organise their spatial mobility and operate their business activities.     

The Origins of Popular Opposition to Palestinian Resettlement in Lebanon

Using original public opinion data, this study addresses the reasons behind the growing popular opposition to Palestinian resettlement in Lebanon. It argues that the origins of this opposition are correlated to the religious composition of the population and to the degree of social distance displayed by the Lebanese towards the Palestinians as members of a distinct community. The results revealed that Lebanese respondents are much less likely to support Palestinian resettlement in Lebanon if they display prejudice and hostility toward Palestinians. In addition, sectarian affiliation is a major predictor of attitude toward resettlement. Specifically, Christian and Shii respondents expressed unfavorable views toward resettlement, in contrast to Sunni and Druze respondents who manifested positive support for resettlement. Hence, for most Lebanese the question of Palestinian resettlement extends to their own political survival. If the existing attitudes hold, resettlement threatens to undermine Lebanon's pluralist character and consensus political arrangement, with implications for the entire region.     

The Adolescent Peer Group in Cross-Cultural Perspective*

Cette etude se penche sur la question suivante: quelles sortes de relations sociales entretiennent entre eux et la societe des adultes, les adolescents qui vivent dans deux societes dont les degres de complexite sont differents ? Les donnees proviennent de deux etudes comparables d'adolescents americains et libanais. Les resultats indiquent que les jeunes americains sont plus orientes vers les groupes d'age que ne le sont ceux du Liban. Les jeunes libanais, au con-traire, sont plus influences par les valeurs familiales et scolaires que le sont les adolescents des Etats-Unis. Ces resultats s'expliquent a partir des differences dans les fonctions de la famille et des groupes d'age aux Etats-Unis et au Liban et a partir egalement des differences dans les empechements socio-structurels a l'autonomie des groupes d'age. On discute la signification de ces resultats pour la recherche. This study examines the question of how youth in each of two societies at different levels of structural complexity relate themselves to each other and to the adult community. Data were obtained from two comparable studies of American and Lebanese youth. The results show that American youth are more oriented to youth peer groups than are their Lebanese counterparts. Contrariwise, Lebanese youth are more oriented to the family and to school related values than are their American counterparts. These results are explained in terms of societal differences in family and peer group functions, as well as differences in social structural impediments to peer group autonomy. The research implications of the study are discussed.     

Community politics and ethnicity among Lebanese in Nova Scotia

Les leaders des groupes ethniques pourraient bien influencer l'identité et les contours ethniques par le biais du processus de la formation des factions. Pour mieux comprendre cette proposition, l'auteur nous présente dans cette étude I'analyse de cinq disputes au sein de la communauté libanaisé d'Halifax, en Nouvelle-Ecosse.
Ethnic group political leaders can affect ethnic and other parochial boundaries and identities through the process of faction formation. Five disputes from the Halifax area Lebanese community are examined with the intention of illuminating this process.     

Traumatic war. Stress & schizophrenia.

1. An examination of the effects of the Lebanese war on the citizens found that traumatic war events can be regarded as of primary importance for risk factors triggering the onset of schizophrenia. 2. The overall findings indicate an increase in the rate of admission for men diagnosed with schizophrenia throughout the 12 years of the war. The most significant increases occurred either following intensive fighting episodes or months later due to the additive effect of stress. 3. How soon individuals are affected by environmentally induced war stress may be related to their level of vulnerability to the disorder.     

Locations of Decision Makers in Membership Organizations

Few studies have theorized and empirically tested variation in location of decision making in NGOs and relationship of decision location choices to accountability dimensions. Using a sample of Lebanese NGOs legally registered as membership organizations, we examine if their budget size and level of member dues, along with dependence on donors interested in democratic governance, predict who participates in their decision‐making process through involvement in preparing and formally approving the annual budget, financial records, and work plan. Our study reveals the reality of shared leadership in these organizations and suggests the value of considering the location of decision making for NGO leaders and the government regulators and funders who wish to encourage democratic processes within membership organizations.     

Oral hygiene and lifestyle correlates among new undergraduate university students in Lebanon

Little is known about Lebanese college students' oral hygiene and the factors associated with how often they brush their teeth. The authors used a structured questionnaire to investigate these issues in a sample of 954 new students at the American University of Beirut in fall 1998. The results indicated poor flossing habits and unfavorable dietary habits among the group. Moreover, using logistic regression analysis, they found that variables such as gender, father's education, exercise, and dietary habits, were significantly correlated with the how frequently the students brushed their teeth. Appropriate promotional activities to improve flossing and dietary habits associated with better oral hygiene are recommended. In addition, the authors call for further research to elaborate on the deficiencies in oral health practices and explore a wider variety of lifestyle behaviors and their correlation.     

Patterns,Determinants, and Implications of Intermarriage Among Arab Americans

This study examines Arab American intermarriage using 1990 U.S. Census data. The results indicate high rates of intermarriage consistent with an assimilation perspective. Over 80% of U.S.‐born Arabs had non‐Arab spouses, implying a diminishing ethnic identification. Logistic regressions show that for both sexes, those with part Arab ancestry, the U.S. born, those with strong English‐language ability, and the highly educated were significantly more likely to out‐marry, as were Arabs of Lebanese ancestry. The cultural and structural assimilation of Arab Americans is facilitating intermarriage, with indicators of acculturation being the strongest predictors, especially for women. The article further discusses ethnic options for children of intermarried couples.     

什叶派集体认同与黎巴嫩民族国家构建

19世纪中叶以来,现代黎巴嫩民族国家逐渐形成。黎马龙派、逊尼派和德鲁兹派接受了以黎巴嫩为“永恒祖国”的原则,并将之作为构建黎巴嫩民族国家的基础。但黎什叶派传统的以封建家族首领为核心的教派认同,在经历了阿拉伯民族主义的挑战后,转变为以什叶派政治组织和民兵武装为基础的新什叶派教派认同。这种集体认同所具有的亲伊朗和叙利亚的属性,对构建黎巴嫩民族国家形成挑战。     

Oral Hygiene and Lifestyle Correlates Among New Undergraduate University Students in Lebanon

Abstract

Little is known about Lebanese college students' oral hygiene and the factors associated with how often they brush their teeth. The authors used a structured questionnaire to investigate these issues in a sample of 954 new students at the American University of Beirut in fall 1998. The results indicated poor flossing habits and unfavorable dietary habits among the group. Moreover, using logistic regression analysis, they found that variables such as gender, father's education, exercise, and dietary habits, were significantly correlated with the how frequently the students brushed their teeth. Appropriate promotional activities to improve flossing and dietary habits associated with better oral hygiene are recommended. In addition, the authors call for further research to elaborate on the deficiencies in oral health practices and explore a wider variety of lifestyle behaviors and their correlation.     

Understanding Local Participation Amidst Challenges: Evidence from Lebanon in the Global South

Scholars frame local participation as a continuum of tools, processes, and values, with outcomes primarily serving implementers or beneficiaries. Donors have adopted participation in their policies and are asking local partners in the Global South to implement participation in their work on the ground. Development management practitioners in the Global South have unique understanding and practice of local participation. This article analyzes the status of local participation in Lebanon using recent empirical data. We address Lebanese DM practitioners’ perceptions of participation. They relate that participation is used in a limited way, as a tool at best. We also identify some of the underlying conditions: weak readiness and understanding; lack of coordinated efforts; and rhetorical use of the participation paradigm. The form of participation changes as these conditions change. We recommend modest expectations of citizen participation, investing efforts to develop organizational readiness, enhance cross-sector coordination, and secure more serious donor engagement.     

Effects of nonverbal examiner praise on selected WAIS subtest performance of Lebanese undergraduates

Forty Lebanese undergraduates were randomly assigned to one of two treatment conditions. Students in the experimental group were tested by an examiner who leaned forward in an attentive posture throughout the course of the examination. The examiner also established and maintained eye contact as each question was presented while simultaneously smiling and nodding after every response. The subjects in the second treatment received neutral nonverbal examiner feedback. In this instance the examiner consistently leaned back in his seat and looked down at the protocol as he presented each item while assuming and maintaining a blank expression. Significant differences were noted between the Digit Span and Similarities scores of the treatment groups. The efficacy of the treatment as a means of reinforcing performance or reducing situational anxiety was noted and recommendations for Middle Eastern and Occidental psychologists were presented.     

Historical writing on migration into the commonwealth Caribbean: A bibliographical review of the period c.1838‐c.1938

For almost a century after slave emancipation in the Commonwealth Caribbean a steady stream of immigrants entered the colonies, from such diverse places as India, Africa, Europe, China, North America, Syria and Lebanon. Historical scholarship on these migrants has concentrated heavily on the Indians, while almost completely neglecting the Syrian/Lebanese. Moreover, the main emphasis has been on the economic roles of the migrants within the dominant plantation sector. Recently, however, increasing attention has been focused on the non‐plantation sectors, while interesting and scholarly work is also emerging on the socio‐cultural aspects of immigrant society. Much research still needs to be done on migrants into the smaller Caribbean islands. Although small in number by comparison with those migrating to Guyana and Trinidad, a knowledge of their roles in and adaptation to their host societies will help us to understand more fully the impact of post‐emancipation migration on the Commonwealth Caribbean.     

“We are all Hizbullah now”: narrating the Party of God

This essay is the first examination of the literary output of the Lebanese political party and militia Hizbullah. It examines a series of little-known fiction and non-fiction texts including novels, memoirs and autobiographies by Hizbullah fighters, supporters and sympathisers. At the same time, it seeks to place such Hizbullah narratives within the context not only of the Party’s media strategy but of the publishing industry in Lebanon more widely. The essay also argues that Hizbullah narratives consistently explore a cluster of key themes including the Karbala tragedy, Anti-Zionism and, in particular, the “infitah” or “Lebanonisation” of the Party. In conclusion, the essay argues that narratives of Hizbullah reflect the Party’s own gradual evolution over its 30-year existence from a purely sectarian group to a broader resistance movement that attracts support from across the religious and political spectrum.     

The Lebanese diasporic field: the impact of sending and receiving states

What is a diaspora? Can it be distinguished from a ‘transnational community’? This paper discusses the Lebanese migrants abroad and their relationships with Lebanon by deploying the Bourdieusian concept of ‘field’. It argues that Bourdieu’s concept of field helps to capture the dynamic character of diasporic relations and the power relations that underpin them. It also enables the researcher to better delineate the boundary of a diasporic community and at the same time to treat this boundary as flexible enough to identify the specific terms for entering and exiting the ‘diasporic field’. It also argues that at a time when diasporic relations are cross-national, that specifically revolve around a real or imaginary ‘homeland’, they encompass individual, group and institutional actors that belong with varying degrees to the country of origin and the countries of settlement. Finally, the paper concludes that the ‘diasporic field’ is a useful analytical tool to capture the complexities of increasingly ubiquitous diasporic relations.     

Assimilating to a White Identity: The Case of Arab Americans1

Racial identity is one of the primary means by which immigrants assimilate to the United States. Drawing from the tenets of segmented assimilation, this study examines how the ethnic traits of immigrant status, national origin, religious affiliation, and Arab Americaness contribute to the announcement of a white racial identity using a regionally representative sample of Arab Americans. Results illustrate that those who were Lebanese/Syrian or Christian, and those who felt that the term “Arab American” does not describe them, were more likely to identify as white. In addition, among those who affirmed that the pan‐ethnic term “Arab American” does describe them, results illustrated that strongly held feelings about being Arab American and associated actions were also linked with a higher likelihood of identifying as white. Findings point to different patterns of assimilation among Arab Americans. Some segments of Arab Americans appear to report both strong ethnic and white identities, while others report a strong white identity, yet distance themselves from the pan‐ethnic “Arab American” label.     

Analysing State–Civil Society Associations Relationship: The Case of Lebanon

Civil society organizations in Lebanon have a long history, pre-dating even the existence of the Lebanese state itself, which has directly shaped their major phases of development since its creation. Based on the social origins theory and using the framework developed by Marchetti and Tocci (Peace Secur Former Pac Rev Peace Secur Glob Chang 21:201–217, 2009), this paper analyses the relationships that have developed between the state and civil society organizations in Lebanon. The main argument presented in this paper is that the scope of work of civil society organizations, in addition to their freedom of action, is directly linked to the social, political and economic development of the state. The main conclusion of this paper is that a new social contract should be forged between associations and the state in Lebanon, one that would allow them to carry out their functions properly.     

Refugee Hospitality in Lebanon and Turkey. On Making ‘The Other’

This paper examines the hospitality provided to Syrian refugees during the refugee crisis spanning from 2011 to 2016 in the border areas of Gaziantep (southeastern Turkey) and the Akkar region (northern Lebanon). Hospitality, apart from a cultural value and societal response to the protracted refugee influx, is a discursive strategy of socio‐spatial control used by humanitarian agencies, local and national authorities. This paper, first, argues against hospitality as an assessment to ethically compare host countries (i.e. more welcoming versus less welcoming states). Second, drawing on Walters’ notion of “humanitarian border”, it shows how the governmental, humanitarian, and everyday workings of hospitality exercise an assertive politics of sovereignty over the social encounter between locals and refugees. We examine the state‐centered hospitality in the Turkish case and a humanitarian‐promoted hospitality in the Lebanese case. We also show how the hospitality discourse shapes the spaces that refugees, citizens, and earlier migrants partake in.     

Post-war reconstruction. Participatory approaches to rebuilding the damaged villages of Lebanon: a case study of al-Burjain

This paper focuses on the reconstruction of war-damaged villages in Lebanon destroyed during the civil war (1975–1991). It presents a holistic approach that considers the complexity of socio-economic, cultural and organisational issues involved in shaping the built environment, in contrast to conventional top–down approaches, which concentrate largely on physical aspects. Therefore, the paper attempts to gain an insight into the socio-cultural conditions of the communities prior to disaster and into the specific situations, which emerged after the destruction of the villages. This will be illustrated by means of a detailed case study of one Lebanese village—namely al Burjain. It develops an understanding of the conditions of the people, their needs and perceptions about rebuilding the village and derives the specific and general principles that should guide the reconstruction process. The paper is based on fieldwork, which employs a qualitative approach that offers flexibility and suits the practical conditions in the field. This allows dynamic discussions with the community under study and permits better understanding of the local conditions. The developmental approach proposed for reconstruction presents principles and good practices appropriate for rebuilding the villages in Lebanon in particular and in similar reconstruction contexts in general.