Family planning practice and women's fertility decision-making power

This paper investigates the effects of family planning practice on fertility decision-making power in South Korea. The log-linear analysis of the 1981 survey data by the Institute of Population and Health Services Research, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea, shows that those urban and rural women who practice family planning or have experienced abortion exercise greater influence on a couple's fertility decision making than those who do not practice family planning or who have had no abortion experience. In addition, there is the interactive effect of abortion experience and contraceptive use on fertility decision making among urban women. This finding is significant because regardless of how birth control is available within a society, birth control use enhances women's decision making power where fertility is concerned.     

Thailand: family planning program exceeds targets

According to Dr. Somboon Vacharothai, Director General of the Ministry of Public Health, the number of people in Thailand who practiced family planning exceeded last year's target. 664,895 individuals used family planning services; this was 62.2% above the planned target for 1976. It was further predicted that 700,000 persons would be recruited by the family planning program in 1977. The preferred method of birth control was the oral contraceptive; it is the method of 800,000 acceptors. Service outlets have been extended rapidly with 5836 medical centers providing family planning services throughout Thailand. Government allocations for family planning have increased from 0.9 million dollars in 1975 to 2.47 million dollars in 1977.     

农村干部对计划生育奖励扶助政策的认知与评价——基于对吉林省部分农村地区的调查

调查表明,农村基层干部普遍对计划生育奖励扶助政策的作用给予高度评价,对奖励扶助对象规定的合理性持基本肯定态度。大多数干部认为,奖励扶助政策在推动群众生育观念转变、纠正出生性别比失调、稳定人们政策生育行为和促进计划生育工作开展等方面不同程度地发挥了作用。奖励扶助政策对于一些农民家庭转变为城市户口的意愿产生微弱的抑制作用。提高奖励扶助标准、扩大奖励扶助对象范围、政策能够持续和降低享受奖励扶助政策的最低年龄等,是农村干部对改进完善计划生育奖励扶助制度的主要建议。     

Agricultural production responsibility system and the work of family planning in the rural area]

With the establishment of the agricultural production responsibility system, the entire agricultural management and economic system has undergone great changes, and family planning in rural areas has met with many difficulties. Because of this responsibility system, households with more manpower seem to become wealthy more rapidly than others. An existing belief among the rural population is that more children will provide a larger labor force and thus more income. Birth control and family planning are therefore becoming more difficult. In order to change existing beliefs, a comprehensive ideological education for peasants is needed so that they may understand the question of birth control from the viewpoints of national interests. Economic rewards and administrative restrictions may be used as necessary birth control measures. Agricultural production and family planning can be managed well if there is close contact and cooperation between the cadres and the masses. Extra care and benefits should be given to women of childbearing age who undergo birth control operations and agree to a single child in each household. Welfare programs for the masses, such as kindergartens and nursing homes must be established in order to reduce their worries. In addition, efforts are needed to study the new situation and solve new problems. The goal of controlling the rural population growth should be achiefed through practical work and experience.     

Fertility concept changes with economic development

In 1985, a policy of allowing rural single daughter families to have a 2nd birth was practiced in the Datuan Village of the Xingfu Town in the Zhifu district, about 10 kilometers to the north of the Yantai City, Shangdong Province. Since the practice, 80 single-daughter families (26% of the total) have signed contracts of their own accord with the villagers' council, indicating they would have only 1 daughter in their lifetime. Clearly, family planning has been deeply rooted among the people in this area, and the childbearing concept of farmers is shifting along with economic development. Efforts have been made to accelerate the development of the rural economy and to increase the income of farmers. In Datuan Village, due to the vigorous development of the village-operated enterprises, the gross income of industry and agriculture in the village has increased from 1.958 million yuan RMB in 1980 to 4.769 million in 1986, with an average income ranging from 250-617 yuan. With the improvement in the living standard, people are willing to pursue a modern lifestyle, and the traditional childbearing concept is fading. It is necessary to provide good family planning publicity and services while the collective economy develops. The Datuan villagers now have a better understanding of family planning and have become more voluntary in the practice of family planning. There has not been a single unplanned birth since 1980.     

落实计划生育利益导向机制，做好为民服务工作

国家建立和完善了人口和计划生育利益导向政策体系．全面推行农村计划生育家庭奖励扶助制度和“少生快富”工程,使计划生育家庭优先分享到改革发展的成果。甘肃省为此出台了一系列具体措施加以落实。     

Son survivorship motivation and family size in India: A computer simulation

Abstract Many sociologists and demographers have argued that the comparatively large families of six to eight children found in rural India to-day result from ignorance of family planning methods, from tradition, and from passive indecision; and that large reductions in the Indian growth rate to Western levels would occur spontaneously if each Indian family were given access to birth control facilities, materials and information. On the other hand, it has been maintained that large family sizes are functional for rural families in India and other developing countries; and that they result from conscious or unconscious choice based upon enlightened self-interest.     

Family building: A social psychological study of fertility decisions

Decision theory, coupled with a hierarchically arranged questionnaire format, is discussed as a possible approach to the prediction of birth planning decisions. The empirical success of the scheme is examined in terms of interrelating attitudes, behavioral intention, desired family size, and birth planning behavior.This project was supported by Research Grant HD-07225-01A1 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Center for Population Research, by NICHD Center Grant HD-09397-01 to the Center for Studies in Demography and Ecology, University of Washington, and by the University of Washington Graduate School Research Projects Fund, from the Public Health Service Biomedical Research Support Grants, Grant #RR07096. The authors thank Dr. Barbara H. Beach for her help with the data analyses. Requests for reprints should be sent to Brenda D. Townes, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195.     

Family planning in India]

India, one of the 1st countries to develop family planning, had a 19.9% decline in its birth rate from 1965-80. This, however, is not adequate in degree or speed. India's 1st private family planning clinic was established in 1925. A government sponsored family planning clinic was built 5 years later. By the early 1950s, governmental support for family planning included 6 5-year plans (1951-83), the target of which was to limit the birth rate to 25/1000 by 1984, and 21/1000 by 2001. A mortality rate of 9/1000 by 2001 was also targeted. By 1979, there were 51,972 Health Centers and Stations in rural areas, all manned by 2-3 physicians, and 50-80 support staff. In urban areas, there were over 1900 family welfare centers. But these do not meet the needs of the entire populace. As early as the 1950s incentives were given to those practicing birth control (e.g., free birth control operations, or priority in housing and jobs). A system of fines was instituted in 1976 for those refusing to participate in family planning, resulting in an increased use of contraceptives. For the years 1956-81, 80,000,000 women used some form of birth control. The percentage of married women practicing birth control jumped from 12% in 1970 to 28% in 1981. Of those successful in family planning, 20.2% were sterilized. But the rate of effective use of birth control varies greatly from area to area, ranging from 1% to 35%. Family planning work in India is hindered by a complex political system, religious beliefs, traditional customs, and illiteracy. By 2000, India's population might increase by 40% to 961,000,000.     

中国人口出生控制成效的比较分析

中国 ①的计划生育工作起始于 2 0世纪 5 0年代。从 1 95 5年到 1 971年 ,中国推行的是一般性的家庭计划生育政策 ,从 1 971年至今 ,中国推行的是家庭计划生育与国家计划生育相结合的政策。如果不实行任何形式的计划生育政策 ,2 0 0 0年末中国人口将会达到 1 8 5 8亿 ,如果象印度那样只倡导自愿实行家庭计划生育 ,将会达到 1 5 3 2亿。过去 45年中 ,中国一共少生了 5 88亿人 ,其中由于实行国家计划生育政策少生了 2 6 2亿人 ,而一般性的家庭计划生育政策少生了 3 2 6亿人。计划生育为中国的社会经济发展做出了巨大的贡献     

Sub-Saharan Africa: population pressures on development

The population of sub-Saharan Africa, estimated at 434 million in 1984, is expected to reach 1.4 billion by 2025. The birth rate, currently 48/1000 population, continues to increase, and the death rate, 17/1000, is declining. Rapid population growth has curtailed government efforts to provide adequate nutrition, preserve the land base essential for future development, meet the demand for jobs, education, and health services, and address overcrowding in urban areas. Low education, rural residence, and low incomes are key contributors to the area's high fertility. Other factors include women's restricted roles, early age at marriage, a need for children as a source of security and support in old age, and limited knowledge of and access to modern methods of contraception. Average desired family size, which is higher than actual family size in most countries, is 6-9 children. Although government leaders have expressed ambivalence toward development of population policies and family planning programs as a result of the identification of such programs with Western aid donors, the policy climat is gradually changing. By mid-1984, at least 13 of the 42 countries in the region had indicated that they consider current fertility rates too high and support government and/or private family planning programs to reduce fertility. In addition, 26 countries in the region provide some government family planning services, usually integrated with maternal and child health programs. However, 10 countries in the region do not support family planning services for any reason. Unfortunately, sub-Saharan Africa has not yet produced a family planning program with a measurable effect on fertility that could serve as a model for other countries in the region. Social and economic change is central to any hope of fertility reduction in sub-Saharan Africa. Lower infant and child mortality rates, rising incomes, higher education, greater economic and social opportunities for women, and increased security would provide a climate more conducive to fertility decline. Given the limited demand, great sensitivity must be shown in implementing family planning programs.     

A tentative discussion on family planning problems in Xinjiang's minorities]

The Uighur Autonomous region in Xinjiang includes a number of minority groups such as the Uighur, Kazakh and Hui. The question of how to implement family planning in minority areas if of utmost importance. In February 1982, the State Council decreed that family planning policy for minority groups could justifiably be more lax than for the Han people, who comprise a majority of Chinese population. Instead of advocating 1 child per couple, as is the current national policy, urban minority groups are permitted 2 (with exceptions, 3) children per couple and rural villagers are permitted 3 (with exceptions, 4) children. The 1982 National Census showed that the natural rate of growth for Xinjiang was 13.63/1000 (compared to the national rate of 11.45/1000) with individual minority growth rates as high as 20.11/1000. The area's gross output value cannot keep up with this population increase. Over half of Xinjiang's minorities are of the Islamic faith, which teaches that births are not self-willed. It is crucial to inculcate in them that births can indeed be planned. Also, their custom of early marriage (age 15 for girls and 16 for boys) which leads to a high fertility rate, must be changed. Although Xinjiang's land mass is great, only 38.4% is arable, so the common belief that its population can grow without limit is fallacious. When family planning was being implemented nationwide, for minorities it was only propagandistic. After the population growth for the majority Han was under control, the minority groups declared family planning programs would also benefit them. Symposiums were held contraceptive use became voluntary among many women. The birth rate fell from 22.5/1000 in 1981 to 14.09/1000 in 1985. Family planning also received approval from religious leaders. But because population distribution and growth are uneven in Xinjiang, family planning policy must reflect these differences.     

Birth Intervals and Childhood Mortality in Rural Bangladesh

This study investigates the relationship between birth intervals and childhood mortality, using longitudinal data from rural Bangladesh known to be of exceptional accuracy and completeness. Results demonstrate significant but very distinctive effects of the previous and subsequent birth intervals on mortality, with the former concentrated in the neonatal period and the latter during early childhood. The impact of short birth intervals on mortality, however, is substantially less than that found in many previous studies of this issue, particularly for the previous birth interval. The findings are discussed in terms of the potential for family planning programs to contribute to improved child survival in settings such as Bangladesh.     

A broadcast on family planning in Hefeng County]

New ideas for the promotion of family planning among distant regions is the objective of this report which states that rural communities lack effective means of communication mainly due to poor transportation facilities, a serious illiteracy problem, and the fact that in certain regions, households are virtually inaccesible because of mountainous terrain. Such is the situation in He Feng County, Hubei Province, in southern central China. It has a population of 180,000 people composed of 3 ethnic groups. The communication barriers mentioned above act to hinder the promotion of effective family planning. In a study carried out in He Feng County, it was found that bad transportation facilities were a contributing factor to the region's backward education. Moreover, the illiteracy and semiilliteracy rates in He Feng County comprise 20% of the population. The problem is compounded by the fact that its 40,000 households are scattered throughout the mountains. In an effort to combat the prevailing situations, the author suggests that an effective means of family planning promotion would be the installation of loudspeakers in almost every household in the county (a total of 25,000 loudspeakers). This would provide suitable family planning education to males and females of different age groups and would foster knowledge of its significance and importance, thereby changing existing rural attitudes about family planning. Furthermore, the government could provide support groups in these regions in order to promote family planning objectives.     

The spread of health services and fertility Transition

We use detailed measures of social change over time, increased availability of various health services, and couples' fertility behaviors to document the independent effects of health services on fertility limitation. Our investigation focuses on a setting in rural Nepal that experienced a transition from virtually no use of birth control in 1945 to the widespread use of birth control by 1995 to limit fertility. Changes in the availability of many different dimensions of health services provide the means to evaluate their independent influences on contraceptive use to limit childbearing. Findings show that family planning as well as maternal and child health services have independent effects on the rate of ending childbearing. For example, the provision of child immunization services increases the rate of contraceptive use to limit fertility independently of family planning services. Additionally, new Geographic Information System (GIS)-based measures also allow us to test many alternative models of the spatial distribution of services. These tests reveal that complex, geographically defined measures of all health service providers outperform more simple measures. These results provide new information about the consequences of maternal and child health services and the importance of these services in shaping fertility transitions.     

Establishing legal system completely and controlling the excessive population growth]

China during the early years of Socialism concentrated on economic development. Population problems were given a low priority. But now, at this point in China's history, it is necessary to maintain the stability and uniformity of the birth policy through legislation, alter attitudes toward childbearing through legal education, and protect through laws the enthusiastic nature of family planning work of cadres. Without legislation, family planning work cannot endure. It is the proper time to promulgate "Family Planning Law", the body of laws written by the State Council after 5 years of research in family planning work. Critics of this view feel that conditions in rural areas are not ripe for such a law, or that because China is large and populous, laws are not the proper method for controlling population, or that legal restrictions would bring unforeseen consequences in the future. But China's population problem is immediate and dire, and conditions are indeed ripe for passing this law.     

Basic policies of the Philippine Population Program

This history of the Philippine Population Commission, which was created in 1969, is summarized. In 1970 President F.E. Marcos defined the government's task in this area as: 1) educating the people on the urgent need for population control; 2) disseminating knowledge on birth control techniques; and 3) providing facilities, especially in rural areas. Funding began in 1971. The 4 basic policies are noncoercion, integration, multiagency participation, and the partnership of the public and private sectors. The noncoercion policy means that all birth control techniques are offered and couples are free to use or reject whatever they wish. This has probably slowed the spread of family planning, but has also minimized opposition. Family planning has never been the domain of 1 agency but has been implemented through many agencies working together. Now it is being implemented through total community development plans, of which family planning is merely 1 component. This approach puts irrigation workers, agricultural development workers, and many others on the family planning team. private agencies have also had an important role to play in the development of the total program. For the past 5 years these have been mainly voluntary sociocivic and health associations whose interests are very close to or naturally related to family planning. Now the entry of business into the Population Program through the commercial contraceptive marketing program has enlarged the role of the private sector in the diffusion of family planning products and services. It is possible that the partnership between the public and private sectors may soon be based on segmentation of the target population with government agencies going deep into rural areas while private organizations concentrate on urban and adjacent rural areas.     

The influence of wives’ and husbands’ fertility preferences on progression to a third birth in Nepal, 1997–2009

As couples across the globe increasingly exercise conscious control over their reproduction, both spouses’ family-size preferences have the opportunity to influence their fertility. Using couple-level measures of rural Nepalese spouses’ family-size preferences and more than a decade of monthly panel data collected subsequently on fertility outcomes, we investigate how both spouses’ preferences influence progression to a third birth in a country where the widely professed ideal family size is two children. Contrary to expectations based on women's relative disadvantage, we find that it is wives’ preferences that drive couples’ progression to a third birth. We find also that the influence of wives’ preferences is not explained by contraceptive use but that this influence is moderated by couple communication about family planning. Wives’ preferences drive progression to a third birth among couples who had discussed how many children to have.     

黑龙江省穆棱市计划生育村民自治调查报告

计划生育村民自治是我国农村社区计划生育的管理方式。穆棱市早在1999年就进行了计划生育村民自治试点工作。穆棱市在具体推行中以人为本,将维护群众的合法权益作为第一要义,尊重和保护群众的生育权、知情权、计划生育技术服务的获得权以及民主参与权。同时,对于低生育水平下的人口与计划生育工作,穆棱市勇于实践,适时改革,取得显著成效。     

优生优育与我国乡村计划生育

我国的计划生育在取得了重大成绩的同时,也出现了不可忽视的计划生育城乡偏位问题,长此以往,不仅有悖于计划生育,也不利于人口素质的提高,不利于21世纪中国的国际竞争。为此,我国必须尽快制订能体现优生优育的计划生育法,以提高全民族的素质