The paradoxes of national health reform during the Wilson era

The current debate over health care reform may represent yet another opportunity to establish a national health policy. A similar level of activity occurred during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson. In many ways, the failure to enact national health reform (NHR) in the early 20th Century represents a paradigm for subsequent failed attempts to enact NHR.     

The Nixon years: failed national health reform from both parties

In the November 1991 elections, popular support for national health reform (NHR) enabled Harry Wofford to become a U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania. Since then a bevy of congressional proposals to reform America's health care system have emerged, with even national health insurance, or a single payer system, becoming a prominent contender for the first time in 20 years. National health reform is now a regular feature on the evening news. However, this is not the first time that NHR has attracted national attention. As pointed out in the first article in this series (Physician Executive, March-April 1992, page 23), there have been numerous efforts to enact NHR in the U.S. Each has failed because of strident opposition by interest groups, lack of active presidential interest in the specific legislation, and the absence of strong popular interest.     

What will future historians say about the Clinton health reform act

In a series of articles that began in the March-April 1992 issue of Physician Executive, the author has provided historical background on the debate that currently rages on the nature and course of national health reform. In addition to tracing past efforts to expand access to health care for Americans, Dr. Goldfield has provided unique insights into the American political process and into the American psyche. In this final article in the series, Dr. Goldfield provides his personal assessment of what the chances for real reform of the health care delivery system are and his views on what that reform will ultimately look like. He calls himself a skeptic, not a cynic, saying that the likelihood of meaningful change is small, given the numerous proponents of the status quo.     

Efforts to implement national health reform in the United States

Beginning in this issue and carrying forth during the year, the author will trace the history of the development of a national health policy in the United States. In beginning this new feature, Physician Executive recognizes the potential impact of national health reform on physician executives and the need to contribute to informed discussion on the current national health reform debate. In this first article, the authors sets the stage for the series, establishing the historical precedents for national health care reform and some of the groundrules for the articles to follow.     

National health reform advocates retrench and prepare for Medicare

With the failure of President Truman's efforts to pass compulsory health insurance for all, national health reform (NHR) advocates began to redirect their political attention to a politically powerful group of Americans who were simultaneously vulnerable from a health care point of view--the elderly. This effort culminated in the passage of Medicare under President Johnson. This article will focus on antecedents to passage of Medicare that can be found in the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations. It will also discuss other facets of health reform proposals from the Eisenhower administration. While most proposals never became law, the legislative intent of many of them--outlawing cancellation of policies, a minimum standard health benefit package, establishment of regional health authorities, preference for prepayment plans, and establishment of a reinsurance pool administered by the federal government--is currently under active discussion by the Clinton health reform task forces.     

A conversation on the future of health care

An extensive amount has been written, reported, and spoken on health care reform. It is a time of turmoil and uncertainty in the health care field. There is a great deal of talk at the federal level on reform, but efforts there seem to be at least temporarily stymied. Much is happening at the local and regional level, however, as the health care field itself wrestles with the changes that have already occurred and with the promise of changes that lie ahead. In the following conversation between two fictional physician executives, one with many years experience, the other his junior, some of the issues surrounding health care reform are discussed. Although the specific environment for the conversation is managed care, most physician executives will find themselves somewhere in the conversation. let's eavesdrop as they speak, in the late summer of 1994.     

The impact of health care reform on group practice

Just two years ago, it would have been very difficult to imagine that reform of the health care system would today be a national domestic priority and that Congress would be considering one of the most significant and far-reaching pieces of legislation in the past 50 years. The issue is still in doubt, but it seems clear that, in this session of Congress or the next, legislation of far-reaching consequences will likely be passed. In fact, change on a widespread scale has already begun. During 1993, every state legislature except those of Nevada and Wyoming considered measures that would alter the way medical care is financed and delivered. Of the states that acted, both last year and in recent legislative sessions, eight have passed laws with the ultimate objective of ensuring access to medical care for all citizens. Government, at both the state and federal level, is clearly taking on the health care issue. The impact of reform on physicians, and thus on group practices, will be substantial. This article outlines the current course of health care reform and addresses its specific implications for the management of group practices.     

Elements of the American Health Security Act of 1993

Over the past several decades, there has been a plethora of proposals that were developed in response to the ongoing debate on how best to solve the problems of the American health care delivery system. In the past decade, calls for modification of our health system have become even more resonant, as measures to control rising costs were unsuccessful and access to basic services was diminished for many Americans. The most recent addition to the list of proposals for modifying the health care system is the American Health Security Act of 1993, introduced by President Clinton in September 1993. This article will examine the position of the Clinton Administration on health reform and the core elements of the reform package.     

Constitutional guarantees to health care in Spain

This analysis of the Spanish health care system is one in a series of such studies undertaken by the author, following a grid of factors that influence the delivery and financing of health care. The purpose of the national analyses is to facilitate a comparison of the United States' and other health care systems in terms of anticipated reform of the U.S. system. Analyses of the U.S. and nine other national systems are included in a book that has just been published by the College. Spain and nine additional countries will be studied in a book due for publication later this year. A final book with ten additional national analyses will appear in 1996.     

PAs/NPs: forging effective partnerships in managed care systems

Three issues have dominated national health policy discussions over the past three decades--how to control health expenditures, how to improve access to care, and how to ensure delivery of high-quality health services. Cost remains the principal societal concern today. An important new dimension in this debate, however, is a critical examination of the impact of the structure of the nation's health workforce on health expenditures. Within this examination, policy makers are giving specific attention to the supply of health professionals, the role of primary care, and the identification of the most appropriate professionals to deliver primary care. In particular, a renewed interest is being shown in the potential of physician assistants (PAs) and nurse practitioners (NPs) to address all three issues. This article will examine the factors that prompted this focus on health workforce issues and the implications of the use of PAs and NPs for the structure and management of the health workforce in the future.     

The Clinton health care proposal: reform squandered again!

Unlike the other articles in this series on efforts to reform the American health care system, this article is necessarily somewhat personal. I lived through it--not as a participant in the process but as a very interested bystander. To President Clinton's credit, his proposal was the first comprehensive proposal from a President since at least President Nixon and strictly speaking since President Truman. Yet, in the final analysis, the results were extremely depressing, not merely because of the obvious failure of the effort, but, even more important, because of the impact it has had on Americans' belief in the possibility for significant government role/responsibility in health care or, for that matter, in any significant domestic initiative. This article will trace portions of the failed Clinton health care initiative proposal--not the myriad other proposals that percolated through Congress. Realistically, only a proposal that had the support of the President had any chance of legislative success. This article will trace the development of the proposal and, while focusing on the universal coverage aspect, point to critical decisions that led to its legislative demise.     

Building a vertical provider system

There is probably no geographic area in the United States in which the health care environment is more turbulent than that of Southern California. Long before President Clinton's proposals began serious national debate on health care reform, a massive provider-driven realignment of the system was occurring in that region of the country. Multispecialty medical groups have generally led the way and have acquired ever larger managed care populations through merger and acquisition of other groups and practices. Hospitals, hampered by large fixed capital bases, have struggled to reinvent themselves as cost-effective and primary care-friendly environments in order to be attractive to managed care physicians. Almost ignored in this reconfiguration has been the university teaching hospital. This article discusses one attempt to reconcile contractually an integrated, capitated, and managed care-oriented health care system with an academic medical center in a strategic alliance.     

The shape of public health policy: the Australian experience

Public health policy is shaped by many factors. A brief historical reflection is given on policy development in Australia to illustrate the various influences on health policy. Medical technology; ethical trade-offs; environmental, social, and political imperatives; popular movements; and changing patterns of disease; as well as market forces have helped to shape Australian contemporary public health policy. These multiple and often competing forces, however, can work against individual consumer choice in health care decisions. This article demonstrates through the eyes of history the factors that shape public health policy. As Australia has a short history compared to most industrialized democratic societies and can be viewed as a microcosm, it is used as the exemplar.     

Managers' Perceptual Errors Revisited: the Role of Knowledge Calibration

Insights from the stream of research on knowledge calibration, which refers to the correspondence between accuracy and confidence in knowledge, enable a better understanding of consequences of inaccurate perceptions of managers. This paper examines the consequences of inaccurate managerial knowledge through the lens of knowledge calibration. Specifically, the paper examines the antecedent role of miscalibration of knowledge in strategy formation. It is postulated that miscalibrated managers who overestimate external factors and display a high level of confidence in their estimates are likely to enact strategies that are relatively more evolutionary and incremental in nature, whereas miscalibrated managers who overestimate internal factors and display a high level of confidence in their estimates are likely to enact strategies that are relatively more discontinuous and disruptive in nature. Perspectives from social cognitive theory provide support for the underlying processes. The paper, in part, explains the paradox of the prevalence of inaccurate managerial perceptions and efficacious performance. It also advances the literature on strategy formation through the application of the construct of knowledge calibration.     

Health care reform. Four variables and a theory: an equation for health care

Writings about health care reform currently appearing in all manner of publications often can confuse, rather than clarify, both problems and solutions. One of the strengths of the study of economics is the ability to summarize complex situations in graphic form, and one of the benefits of management theory is to visualize approaches to problems in a broad and well-organized manner. Three recent articles, when combined, suggest a fresh analysis of the problems demanding health care reform in this nation. They are reviewed here and synthesized into a philosophical view that encourages a more positive approach to solutions for the problems. The first article considers an economic theory with striking applications to health care. The second article suggests one management approach for the future for both for-profit and not-for-profit organizations. The third article takes a fresh approach to competition in health care. This review will discuss the economic theory and then apply the management principles to the problem of health care reform confronting the profession and the nation today.     

Accounting for the transition from inpatient to outpatient surgery

This article reports on some of the factors that have advanced and impeded hospital progress in moving from inpatient to outpatient surgery. Early on, patients, physicians, and hospital administrators all agreed that outpatient surgery had an intuitive appeal. Patients liked it because they didn't have to go in the hospital. Physicians liked it because they could get in and out of the outpatient surgery center more easily than the main hospital operating room. Administrators recognized the inherent appeal of outpatient procedures but were unable or unwilling to switch services from inpatient to outpatient for a variety of reasons. First, empty hospital beds and diminished scope of inpatient operations are a threat to the power of administrators. Moving surgery from inpatient to outpatient settings reduces inhouse operations. Second, reimbursement incentives were definitely in favor of continued inpatient care long after technology was in place for outpatient care. The third and most critical reason was that cost data on outpatient operations were just not available for making decisions on when to move into the outpatient setting. This review of the literature was intended to document the lack of relevant cost-based accounting. Instead, many other factors that more directly slowed progress were encountered. More than anything, this illustrates the erratic course of progress in health care reform.     

Demand rising for medicine's rarest birds

The prognosis from most quarters is that the U.S. health care delivery system is moving inexorably toward managed care. The final form that managed care takes under whatever health reform measure finally takes shape in Washington is still in doubt, but it is clear that care will be managed in the future. It also seems increasingly clear that the system evolving will require more primary care providers, and that they will occupy some very key decision-making roles in the clinical firmament. In this article, staff writer Donna Vavala brings together the thoughts and predictions of several health care leaders on this critical topic in medical management.     

The Health Insurance Flexibility and Accountability (HIFA) Demonstration program. A new initiative to cover the uninsured.

Seeking to keep his promise to give states more flexibility while expanding health insurance coverage to low-income people, President George W. Bush released a proposal to reform Medicaid and The Children's Health Insurance Program. This initiative, the Health Insurance Flexibility and Accountability Act (HIFA), represents a significant change in Medicaid policy. Whether states will find this proposal a useful tool to expand coverage remains to be seen.     

国有企业经理人行为激励的制度分析:以万家乐为例

本文以广东顺德万家乐股份有限公司为分析对象 ,对我国国有企业效率低下的原因进行了分析。本文认为 ,国有企业效率低下源自于企业内部人员 ,特别是高级管理人员的机会主义行为。分析结果表明 ,造成国有企业内部人员机会主义盛行的深层原因是现行的国有企业制度安排。本文的意义在于：要继续深化国有企业改革 ,提高国有企业效率 ,不能依赖局部性的“改良” ,必须要从根本上改革当前的制度。一、引言改革开放以来 ,我国的经济建设取得了巨大的发展 ,但是随着改革开放程度的深入 ,国有企业绩效低下已经成为制约我国经济进一步发展的重要因素。…