Sexual Identity Development and Self-Esteem as Predictors of Body Image in a Racially Diverse Sample of Gay Men

The current study examined the relationship between sexual identity development and body image, as well as the potential mediating effect of self-esteem, in a community sample of gay men. A diverse group of participants (N = 172), recruited through listservs and flyers, completed an online survey. Regression analyses were conducted to assess the relationships between identity development and self-esteem, identity development and body image, self-esteem and body image, and the mediating role of self-esteem. As predicted, significant relationships were identified between each pair of variables, and self-esteem was found to be a mediator when the sample was considered as a whole. When participants of color were compared to those who were White, however, between-group differences emerged; identity stage did not predict self-esteem or body image for participants of color, nor did the mediated relationship exist. Self-esteem did predict body image in both groups. The sociocultural context of these findings is considered.     

The Relationship Between Body Image and Sexual Functioning Among Gay and Bisexual Men

ABSTRACT

Gay and bisexual men report high body dissatisfaction compared to heterosexual counterparts, but no studies to date have examined how this may impact their sexual functioning. The present study investigated body image domains as predictors of sexual functioning problems (inhibited desire, erectile dysfunction, and premature ejaculation) among an online community sample of 185 gay and bisexual men, ages 18–40. Participants reported moderate to high body image satisfaction and sexual functioning consistent with previous literature with nonclinical male samples. Overall, the total variance accounted for by regression models was low. Body image variables were not predictive of sexual desire. However, increased drive for muscularity and lower affective body esteem were predictive of erectile difficulties. Additionally, negative behavioral body image in sexual situations and evaluative body dissatisfaction were associated with premature ejaculation. Understanding this relationship may have implications for gay and bisexual men’s health and wellbeing. Future research directions are discussed.     

Sexual Coercion Among Gay and Bisexual Men in Aotearoa/New Zealand

Until recently, sexual coercion among gay men has been regarded as virtually oxymoronic. Discourses of male sexuality as ever-present and driven, and discourses of masculinity that portray men as in control and invulnerable, converge to almost disavow the possibilities that sex could be unwanted by men, or that men could be vulnerable to being pressured into sex against their will. This article reports on interviews with 19 gay and bisexual men about their experiences of forced, coerced, or unwanted sex. We identified four general patterns in these accounts: (1) incidents involving physical force; (2) experiences in which a man's ability to refuse sex was compromised by intoxication; (3) dynamics where young and inexperienced men were coerced or pressured into unwanted sex; and (4) situations in which men felt obligated to engage in unwanted sex. Specific issues included barriers to reporting sexual assault, power dynamics in intergenerational sex, and the difficulty of refusing unwanted sex. Importantly, many of the factors identified as driving sexual coercion relate not to gay sexuality per se, but rather to masculine sexuality. Conversely, some of the factors relating to men's vulnerability to coercion were exacerbated by some features of gay sexual culture; in particular those aspects associated with existing in a marginalized territory within a wider heteronormative context.     

Stereotypes,Emotions, and Behaviors Toward Lesbians,Gay Men,Bisexual Women,and Bisexual Men

The utility of the Stereotype Content Model (Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 2002) and the Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes map (Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2007) were examined in the context of heterosexuals’ attitudes toward sexual minorities. Heterosexual adults completed a survey measuring stereotypes, emotions, and behavioral tendencies toward lesbians, gay men, bisexual women, and bisexual men. Stereotype content differed across groups and showed “gendered” and “valenced” effects on emotions and behavioral tendencies. Competence predicted behaviors for men, whereas warmth and competence predicted behaviors for women, and, for the most part, more was better. Admiration and contempt mediated most of these relationships across most subgroups, but pity and envy played smaller roles for some subgroups. Across all groups, competence played a more predictive role than warmth.     

Intergroup Dialogue Courses on Sexual Orientation: Lesbian,Gay and Bisexual Student Experiences and Outcomes

Intergroup dialogue is a method of social justice education. Most intergroup dialogue research explores race and gender identities. Sexual orientation dialogues are uncommon and not yet examined empirically. This qualitative study explores sexual orientation dialogue courses from the perspective of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) student participants. Understanding target, or marginalized, group perspective of planned intergroup experiences is important given concerns raised in the literature. We document student motivations for participating in dialogues, core outcomes, and main challenges that arose in dialogue. Core outcomes include learning about and accepting one's sexual identity and empowerment. Challenges include those stemming from invisibility of sexual orientation identity. Recommendations are made for intergroup dialogue practice and research.     

The Relation of Social Support,Connectedness, and Collective Self-Esteem to the Psychological Well-Being of Lesbian,Gay, and Bisexual Youth

Abstract

The present study extended the research on the mental health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth by testing the relationship of social support, social connectedness, and collective self-esteem to psychological well-being in a sample of 218 LGB youth. Perceived social support significantly predicted psychological well-being subscales; social connectedness and collective self-esteem contributed significantly to the psychological well-being of the LGB participants when controlling for perceived social support. Age moderated the relations between several of the social and psychological well-being variables. Results of the study suggest that helping professionals working with LGB youth consider assessment of the youth's sense of connectedness to those around him/her and esteem related to LGB group membership in addition to assessing general social support.     

Sexual Behaviors,Sexual Health Practices,and Community Engagement Among Gay and Bisexually Identified Men Living in Rural Areas of the United States

Limited research has focused on the sexual behaviors of men who have sex with men (MSM) from rural communities. We examined the sexual and health-related behaviors of MSM living in rural areas of the United States in order to understand the sexual health repertoire of this population. A total of 5,357 participants living in rural settings were recruited online and completed an anonymous Internet-based survey that assessed sexual behaviors, condom use, and men’s engagement with various community activities and events. These data provide a greater understanding of sexual health profiles that exist among rural MSM and will help inform the design of effective programs for men in these often underserved communities.     

Risk-Taking Behaviors of Gay and Bisexual Men in New York City Post 9/11

Until now, the reactions of gay and bisexual populations have been largely overlooked in response to terror and disaster. This study assesses risk-taking behaviors in gay and bisexual men two weeks before and after the 9/11 attacks in Manhattan. For the purposes of this study, risk-taking behaviors include drug use and unprotected anal sex. These behaviors and associated desires were examined in relation to race/ethnicity, age, geographic location, and HIV status, within and across time. The results of this study demonstrate that HIV status may be a pivotal demographic feature in understanding risk-taking behaviors post disaster. No changes in drug use were reported pre and post 9/11. However, there was an increase in risky sexual behaviors in relation to serostatus, with HIV-positive men reporting a higher number of sexual partners post 9/11. In contrast, the number of sexual partners remained constant in HIV-negative men. There was also an interaction effect, demonstrating that HIV-positive men were more likely than HIV-negative men to act on their desire for sex. Thus, as a population already faced with the prospect of death, HIV-positive men may be a population more vulnerable in the face of terror and disaster.     

Mental Health Concerns of Gay and Bisexual Men Seeking Mental Health Services

ABSTRACT

Little data exist about the mental health needs of gay and bisexual men. This is due to limitations of existing studies such as small and nonrepresentative samples, failure to assess sexual orientation, and concerns about stigmatization, possibly causing sexual minority individuals to be reluctant to disclose their sexual orientation to researchers. Fenway Community Health is a large urban health center that serves the LGBT community. The large number of gay and bisexual men who present for mental health treatment allows for a unique opportunity to gain insight into mental health, prevention, and intervention needs for this group. The current study is a review of the mental health information from all of the gay and bisexual men who reported that they were HIV-negative during their mental health intake over a six-month period at Fenway Community Health (January to June 2000; N = 92). The most frequent presenting problems were depression, anxiety, and relationship issues. Additionally, presenting problems included current or past abuse, substance abuse, finance and employment, recent loss, and family issues. The most frequent diagnoses were depression, anxiety disorders, and adjustment disorders. These findings support the notion that presenting problems and mental health concerns among gay and bisexual men are similar to those frequently reported by individuals in other mental health facilities, however, specific psychosocial stressors are unique to this population.     

Development of a Lesbian,Gay, Bisexual Visibility Management Scale

Many lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals manage the degree to which their sexual orientation is known to others. Visibility management, the process of regulating the exposure of one's orientation, is an important part of the lesbian/gay/bisexual experience in community, family, and virtually all other social settings. The degree to which one allows his or her sexual orientation to be visible can have a profound impact on stress, health, self-esteem, interpersonal relationships, and quality of life. The purpose of the present study was to develop a valid and reliable measure of visibility management. The Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual-Visibility Management Scale was constructed and piloted with a small sample of LGB adults. Results support the potential utility of the LGB scale based on satisfactory evidence of construct validity, item-level discrimination, and subscale reliability.     

Factors Influencing the Career and Academic Choices of Lesbian,Gay, Bisexual,and Transgender People

This is an empirical study of academic and career choices for 119 lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) students using a questionnaire. Respondents who reported that their sexual orientation influenced their choices a great deal indicated that the influences were both positive and negative. This group was most likely to have experienced anti-LGBT discrimination in the past. In comparing lesbian, bisexual people, and gay males, gay males and respondents from visible minorities were the most likely to feel a negative impact, while bisexual respondents were the least likely. There were too few transgender respondents to include in these statistical comparisons; however, frequencies suggest that transgender people may be the most vulnerable of all. Results suggest that counselors need to take sexual orientation issues, particularly past experiences of discrimination, when working with LGBT clients.     

Latino Gay and Bisexual Men's Relationships with Non-Gay-Identified Men Who Have Sex With Men

This study investigated relationships between Latino gay-identified men in metropolitan New York City and their non-gay-identified male partners. Phase 1 consisted of in-depth interviews (N = 33), and Phase 2 consisted of quantitative surveys (N = 120) with Brazilian, Colombian, and Dominican men who have sex with men (MSM). A majority of participants reported having had sex with heterosexually identified men, and in many cases, the relationship was sustained over time. We found mixed results concerning an attitude sometimes attributed to Latinos that sexual orientation is defined by sexual role, with receptive MSM seen as gay and insertive MSM seen as straight. Although there were no significant associations between partner sexual orientation and unprotected anal intercourse, gay men were less likely to take the insertive role in oral or anal sex with straight-identified male partners than with gay partners.     

Internalized Homophobia,Coping, and Quality of Life Among Nigerian Gay and Bisexual Men

ABSTRACT

Despite high levels of homophobia in Nigeria, no studies have investigated the quality of life (QOL) of Nigerian gay and bisexual (GB) men. The associations between QOL and minority stress may differ from those reported in developed countries and may indicate alternative interventions. This study investigated internalized homophobia (IH) and coping strategies among gay and bisexual men in Nigeria and the relationships with overall QOL. Eighty-nine GB men were recruited with a snowball sampling technique. QOL (outcome), IH (predictor) and coping strategies (covariates) were assessed using standardized questionnaires. Relationships were investigated using linear regression analyses. Participants used adaptive more frequently than maladaptive coping strategies. The relationship between IH and QOL was nonlinear (β = ?0.27, 95% CI = ?0.48, ?0.06), and the positive component was attenuated by adaptive coping strategies. Adaptive strategies can be reinforced as a therapeutic intervention to improve wellbeing among gay and bisexual men in Nigeria.     

Predictors of Sports Motivation Among Gay and Bisexual Men

ABSTRACT

Athletic activities are associated with reduced levels of stress and negative mood states among heterosexuals; thus, examining this association among gay/bisexual men is warranted. The current study examined the relationship between sports motivation and mood states, self-esteem, body esteem, life satisfaction, perceptions of masculinity/femininity, and parental encouragement for athletic endeavors among 195 gay/bisexual men. The results were mixed, but suggest that sports participation among gay/bisexual men may relate to a desire to express their masculinity and maintain a positive body image. Gay/bisexual men may be more likely to participate in sports if they receive positive reinforcement from others.     

The Relationships Between Sense of Belonging to the Gay Community,Body Image Dissatisfaction,and Self-Esteem Among Australian Gay Men

Body image dissatisfaction has been linked to belonging to the gay community and poor self-esteem among gay men. This study was designed to explore the applicability of a moderation model and a mediation model in explaining the relations between sense of belonging to the gay community, body image dissatisfaction and self-esteem among 90 self-identified Australian gay men. Participants completed the psychological subscale of the Sense of Belonging Instrument, the Body Satisfaction Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Results supported the moderation model; the relation between body image dissatisfaction and self-esteem was found to be statistically significant only at average and high levels of belonging to the gay community. The mediation model was also supported; body image dissatisfaction partially mediated the sense of belonging–self-esteem relation. Educating gay men and health professionals about the possible negative outcomes of “belonging” to an appearance-oriented community is important.     

The Effects of Honesty and Openness About Sexual Orientation on Gay and Bisexual Clients in Substance Abuse Programs

A convenience sample of 183 gay, lesbian, and bisexual participants who were previously treated in substance abuse programs, completed surveys that included questions regarding their honesty and openness about their sexual orientation with counselors and clients in their programs, as well as in their personal lives. It was found that levels of honesty and openness in treatment positively correlated with reported program completion, satisfaction with treatment, feelings of therapeutic support, and feelings of connection to the program. However, there were no correlations between honesty and openness and reported abstinence from substances at the end of treatment and at the time of survey completion.     

Age of Onset of Alcohol Consumption and Subsequent Negative Health Outcomes in Gay and Bisexual Men Who Have Sex With Men

ABSTRACT

The correlation between current alcohol use and sexual risk behaviors among men who have sex with men (MSM) is well documented, but little is known about age of drinking onset and current risks among this population. Data from a 2008 Internet survey of 8,452 MSM in the United States were used to assess factors associated with age of onset of alcohol use. In a multivariable model, drinking onset before age 15 was significantly associated with a higher number of lifetime male anal sex partners and being behaviorally bisexual in the past 12 months. Men who reported depressive symptoms in the past two weeks or who screened positive for alcohol abuse in the past 60 days were more likely to have early age of drinking onset. Findings suggest the need for targeting younger adolescents for alcohol screening, particularly sexual minority youth, to prevent risk behaviors in adulthood.     

The Effect of HIV-Discordance on the Sexual Lives of Gay and Bisexual Men in Mexico City

Drawing upon 44 in-depth interviews with men in HIV-discordant gay couples (only one man is HIV-positive) in Mexico, I explore whether being aware of the risk of primary infection or re-infection leads to protected sex. The results have policy implications, as the findings show that a significant number of men have participated in unprotected sex. An explanation is that these men perceive unprotected sex as an expression of commitment to their relationship. On the other hand, those who reported always using protection during sex perceive that guarding each other's health provides mutual benefit and shows their commitment to their relationship.     

Discrete Effects of Religiosity and Spirituality on Gay Identity and Self-Esteem

Previous research has indicated that although spirituality may bolster development of a positive gay identity, religiosity may prove detrimental. Because the majority of this research confounds these constructs, there is little evidence as to the discrete roles religiosity and spirituality may play in LGB identity development. The present study endeavored to tease apart the unique effects of religion and spirituality on positive and negative gay identity and self-esteem. A sample of 376 self-identified sexual minority adults were given measures of religiosity, spirituality, LGB identity, and self-esteem. Models were built to evaluate the effects of religiosity (independent of spirituality) and spirituality (independent of religiosity), understanding that the constructs are greatly overlapped, on identity and self-esteem. Results included a positive association between spirituality and identity affirmation, identity superiority, and self-esteem. Religiosity was negatively associated with identity affirmation and self-esteem and positively associated with internalized homonegativity and heteronormativity. Limitations and implications are discussed.     

Gay Community Involvement: Its Interrelationships and Associations With Internet Use and HIV Risk Behaviors in Swedish Men Who Have Sex With Men

We measured aspects of “community involvement” chosen for men who have sex with men (MSM) in Sweden (gay places, media accessed, Internet, gay festivals, and social engagement, measured as proportion of gay friends) in two Swedish Internet-based samples from 2006 (n?=?3,202) and 2008 (n?=?4,715). Data showed low to moderate reliability with a moderate (0.57) alpha coefficient. While there is moderate internal consistency, as might be anticipated from measures of actual community involvement, they can be treated as scales. The Internet scale indicated the lowest reliability, perhaps due to respondents having Internet sites of primary choice, rather than a high level of usage across several sites. A hypothesized lack of correlation between traditional domains of the gay community and the Internet did not appear: correlations between the Internet measure and the other measures were positive and significant, but among the lowest correlations obtained between the community measures, ranging from 0.06 to 0.24. Those who use the Internet extensively are less likely to be involved in other aspects of the community. Sexual risk was associated with high social engagement at sexual meeting sites and with Internet use. Gay community involvement, including the Internet community, may be complex and associated with both increase in HIV sexual risk behaviors (by measuring use of sexual risk sites) and preventive measures (HIV testing).