Rapid onset of pathological gambling in machine gamblers

A particularly rapid onset of pathological gambling (PG-onset) through the use of gambling machines has been widely alluded to, but this is the first study to empirically examine the phenomenon. This study compared the latency of PG-onset in those who gambled primarily on machines, compared to those who gambled primarily on more traditional forms of gambling at PG-onset. Subjects were 44 adult pathological gamblers (PGs) seeking outpatient treatment in Rhode Island (17 females; mean age = 46.9). Subjects completed questionnaires and a diagnostic interview including a complete history of gambling activities and the course of PG. The latency of PG-onset was defined as the time (in years) elapsed between the age of regular involvement in the primary form of gambling and the age at which DSM-IV criteria were first met. Machine PGs (n = 25) had a significantly shorter latency of onset than did traditional PGs (1.08 years vs. 3.58 years). Females and machine PGs had a significantly older age of onset, but gender was not associated with latency of PG-onset. Lifetime comorbidity of either substance use disorders (SUDS) or depressive disorders (DDS) was also not associated with the latency of PG-onset. The results of the current study suggest that intrapersonal variables such as gender and comorbid disorders do not generally affect the speed with which people develop PG. Rather, the social, environmental, and stimulus features of mechanized gambling are implicated. Prospective longitudinal studies on the onset and course of PG are needed, as well as more basic research on the features of machine gambling that may contribute to rapid onset.     

A survey of fruit machine gambling in adolescents

Fruit machine gambling among children and young people in the United Kingdom has attracted increasing interest. Since 1985 a number of questionnaire surveys have been conducted attempting to assess the incidence of adolescent fruit machine use and to explore its relationship with delinquency. Data yielded by these surveys have been somewhat inconsistent. Estimates of the prevalence of fruit machine gambling have varied considerably and there is disagreement over its association with deviant behaviour. Researchers have drawn divergent conclusions with different implications for legislation. In the present study, questionnaires were administered to 1,395 11–12 year old and 14–15 year old school children in the Birmingham area. Although for the majority, fruit machine gambling was found to be an infrequent activity involving fairly small amounts of money, a small but significant proportion were found to be gambling often and spending in excess of their income. There was also evidence to suggest that arcades may serve as venues for undesirable activities.This research was funded by the Church of England Children's Society and the authors gratefully acknowledge their support.The authors acknowledge their special thanks to William Wyatt for his continued assistance throughout this project.     

Current trends in slot machine gambling: Research and policy issues

This paper introduces a special issue of theJournal of Gambling Studies on slot machine gambling, and overviews some current trends concentrating on research and policy issues. It is demonstrated that throughout the world, research findings have linked slot machines with pathological gambling. Indeed slot machines are now the predominant form of gambling activity by pathological gamblers treated in self help groups and professional treatment centres in numerous countries. This paper briefly examines the research on slot machines and pathological gambling and then goes on more specifically to examine four areas. These are (i) slot machine gambling and youth, (ii) slot machines and arcade video game playing, (iii) the possible developmental link between slot machines and video games and (iv) pathological video game playing.     

Patterns and characteristics of adolescent gambling

Minnesota youth (15 to 18-years of age) were surveyed regarding their gambling experiences and psychosocial risk status. Gambling was reported by most of the subjects, with 8.7% classified as problem gamblers. Correlates of problem gambling included school difficulties, regular drug use, delinquency, parental gambling, and being male. Adolescent gambling is conceptualized as a normal experience of youth, yet those in the problem gambling group may be particularly vulnerable to future gambling problems.The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Minnesota Department of Human Services for their funding support of the study and to several colleagues, particularly Linda Harris, J. Clark Laundergan and Durand Jacobs, and anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.     

The acquisition,development, and maintenance of fruit machine gambling in adolescents

In the U.K., the major commercial gambling activity in adolescents is the playing of slot machines (commonly known as “fruit machines”). Over the past few years, the negative effects of “fruit machine addiction” have been reported by various helping organizations (e.g. Gamblers Anonymous) and the national press, including allegations of attempted murder, suicide and prostitution as well as a wider incidence of petty crime. Fifty adolescent fruit machine players from a ‘user population’ participated in a face-to-face interview and questionnaire study examining factors in the acquisition, development and maintenance of gambling behaviour. Nine adolescent males were deemed to be pathological gamblers as measured by the American Psychiatric Association DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria, and a number of serious consequences were reported including gambling debts, truancy and stealing.     

The role of subjective mood states in the maintenance of fruit machine gambling behaviour

Explanations involving the etiology of pathological gambling have tended to emphasize psychosocial factors. However, the possibility that psychobiological factors are important should not be ruled out. Two currently researched psychobiological approaches to gambling involve the role of (i) arousal and (ii) depression. A study analyzing the subjective mood variables of 60 gamblers (44 males and 16 females; mean age 23.4 years) using self report measures was carried out in an attempt to identify which mood states are critical to gambling maintenance. Results indicated that regular and pathological gamblers experienced more depressive moods before playing and that regular and pathological gamblers experienced significantly more excitement during gambling than non regular gamblers. These results are discussed in relation to contemporary literature regarding the roles of arousal and depression in the maintenance of gambling behaviour.The author would like to thank the UK Economic and Social Research Council for funding this research through a research studentship. The author would also like to thank Henry Lesieur and the anonymous reviewers for their constructive advice and criticism in the revisions of this paper.     

Fruit machine addiction in adolescence: A case study

A majority of the research on adolescent fruit machine gambling has been survey type studies concentrating on incidence, demographics and quantitative analysis of motivations, subjective feelings and negative consequences of fruit machine addiction. The data from this study are reported as a case study of an 18 year old former adolescent fruit machine addict with additional information from the addict's mother. The study examines a number of distinct stages and circumstances in the development of the addiction including die discovery of the problem, the motivations to constantly gamble, the role of family distress, loss chasing, excitement and skill in maintenance of problem gambling, in addition to a personal examination of the problem's confrontation and eventual recovery. These personal insights are discussed with relation to the contemporary literature. It is shown that previous speculations on some issues arising from quantitative analysis may have to be re-evaluated in the light of more detailed qualitative accounts such as this study.The author would like to thank the U.K. Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a research studentship, and the Parents of Young Gamblers organization for their help in this research.     

Reduced inhibitory control predicts persistence in laboratory slot machine gambling

Impairments in inhibitory control characterize a range of addictive behaviours including gambling disorder. This study investigated the relationship between a neuropsychological measure of inhibitory control and behaviour on a simulated slot machine that included a measure of gambling persistence, in a non-clinical sample of regular gamblers. Regular gamblers (n = 75) performed a laboratory slot machine task for 30 trials where they could win real money, followed by a persistence phase under extinction (i.e. without wins). Participants also completed a stop-signal task, along with measures of gambling-related cognitions, social desirability, and symptoms of disordered gambling. In hierarchical regression models, reduced inhibitory control was found to predict greater persistence and a higher subjective desire to play again after both wins and near-misses (i.e. unsuccessful outcomes close to the jackpot). These data illustrate the impact of low inhibitory control on relevant behavioural tendencies in a group of regular gamblers. Our results help elucidate a cognitive process that may contribute to problem gambling, with implications for screening and treatment.     

Psychological characteristics of volunteers in studies on gambling

Advertisements were published in local newspapers asking for volunteers to participate in a study on gambling. A battery of eleven questionnaires was mailed to the subjects assessing pathological gambling behavior, sociodemographic characteristics, motivation to gamble, erroneous perceptions about gambling, superstitious beliefs, depressive symptoms, social anxiety and avoidance, alcohol and drug abuse, problem-solving skills, and marital satisfaction. Subjects received $10 when they returned the questionnaires fully completed. Response rate was over 95%. Surprisingly, 29% of the respondents met the criterion for probable pathological gambling (score of 5 or more on the SOGS) and a further 16% were identified as potential pathological gamblers (scores of 3 or 4). The potential and probable pathological gamblers showed significant differences on motivational and cognitive variables related to gambling compared to those subjects who showed no signs of pathological gambling. The probable pathological gamblers reported significantly more signs of poor psychosocial functioning than the other two groups, including depressive symptoms, poor problem orientation, drug and alcohol abuse, and interpersonal conflict. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Predicting online gambling self-exclusion: an analysis of the performance of supervised machine learning models

As gambling operators become increasingly sophisticated in their analysis of individual gambling behaviour, this study evaluates the potential for using machine learning techniques to identify individuals who used self-exclusion tools out of a sample of 845 online gamblers, based on analysing trends in their gambling behaviour. Being able to identify other gamblers whose behaviour is similar to those who decided to use self-exclusion tools could, for instance, be used to share responsible gaming messages or other information that aids self-aware gambling and reduces the risk of adverse outcomes. However, operators need to understand how accurate models can be and which techniques work well. The purpose of the article is to identify the most accurate technique out of four highly diverse techniques and to discuss how to deal analytically and practically with a rare event like self-exclusion, which was used by fewer than 1% of gamblers in our data-set. We conclude that balanced training data-sets are necessary for creating effective models and that, on our data-set, the most effective method is the random forest technique which achieves an accuracy improvement of 35 percentage points versus baseline estimates.     

Problem gambling and policy advice: The mutability and relative effects of structural,associational and attitudinal variables

Research on gambling has the double mandate of public service and the advancement of science. This paper is meant to carry forward that mandate. Latent in research on the causes of problem gambling is the policy insight that these causes represent different types of phenomena and are unequally mutable to practitioners' efforts to prevent and/or treat problem gambling. By making the issue of mutability manifest in research, findings from research would have more policy relevance and practical import. Data from a 1989 Iowa survey on lottery play and problem gambling are analyzed to illustrate this point. 1,226 respondents were contacted by phone and phone interviews were completed with 1,011 of these 1,226 eligible respondents. With multiple regression, we assessed the contributions of mutable and immutable variables to the explained variance in problem gambling. The results show mutable correlates explain enough variance in problem gambling to recommend their consideration in treatment/prevention. The results also suggest a social as well as a psychological etiology to problem gambling. Future research should, however, do a more complete comparison of social and psychological causes of problem gambling.This research was partially supported by the Iowa Department of Human Services and the National Institute of Mental Health (1 R01 MH50369-01A1). The authors wish to thank Willis Goudy, anonymous readers and the editor of this journal for helpful comments.     

The gambling lifestyle: I. theory

This paper describes the lifestyle model of gambling behavior in which compulsive gambling behavior is conceptualized as a lifestyle characterized by pseudoresponsibility, self-ascension, hypercompetitiveness, and social rule breaking/bending/ twisting. The underlying premise of this theory is that gambling behavior takes on the appearance of a lifestyle when it is viewed by the individual as a viable means of enhancing self-worth, minimizing personal insecurity, and controlling fear. Three primary areas of theoretical and research interest are covered in this paper: (1) the theoretical underpinnings of lifestyle theory; (2) the individual components (conditions, choice, cognition) of a gambling lifestyle; and (3) the developmental progression of a gambling lifestyle.The author would like to thank Henry Lesieur and anonymous reviewers of earlier versions of this paper for their helpful comments. The assertions and opinions contained herein are the private views of the author and should not be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Federal Bureau of Prisons or United States Department of Justice.     

The gambling lifestyle: II. Treatment

Two individuals with records of prior compulsive gambling involvement are profiled in order to illustrate the nature of a gambling lifestyle and describe the process of lifestyle change. The treatment model utilized by therapists proposing a lifestyle interpretation of compulsive gambling behavior is guided by three primary objectives or goals: (1) the cessation of lifestyle activities; (2) the development of skills useful in managing gambling-related conditions, choices, and cognitions; and (3) the implementation of an effective program of follow-up intervention and support. These goals give rise to the three stages of lifestyle intervention — (1) laying a foundation for change, (2) identifying vehicles for change, and (3) establishing a reinforcing nongambling life-style—from which specific change strategies are derived. The implications of this model and the possibility of limited generalizability are discussed.The assertions and opinions contained herein are the private views of the author and should not be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Federal Bureau of Prisons or United States Department of Justice.     

Pathological gambling: The initial screening interview

This paper reviews basic components of the initial screening interview for applicants to treatment programs for pathological gamblers. The therapeutic potential of the interview is seen as primary and the collection of information follows an initial period of unstructured exploration of feelings. Specific information needed in making an admission decision is reviewed including items related to the gambling addiction, to family, employment, health, co-addiction, attitude, and demographics. Some items of information required by the client are reviewed. Criteria for acceptance or rejection are mentioned throughout. The rationale for various items of policy is reviewed briefly in a number of situations.     

Forms of gambling,gambling involvement and problem gambling: evidence from a Swedish population survey

The purpose of this study was to explore the association between problem gambling (PG) and participation in different forms of gambling in order to elucidate relationships between PG, gambling involvement and gambling intensity. Using data from the first wave of the Swedish Longitudinal Gambling Study (Swelogs) (n = 4,991), the study tested four hypotheses, namely that (1) some forms of gambling are more closely associated with PG than other forms; (2) high gambling involvement is associated with PG; (3) gambling involvement is positively associated with the intensity of gambling; and (4) the relationship between gambling involvement and PG is influenced by the specific forms of gambling in which individuals participate. All four hypotheses were supported. More specifically, the study found that while many PGs regularly participate in multiple forms of gambling, half of PGs participate regularly in only one or two forms of gambling. The study concluded that some forms of gambling are more closely associated with problem gambling than other forms, and that gambling policy and regulation, as well as the development of responsible gambling initiatives, should focus on these forms.     

Pathological gambling: A comparison of gambling at German-style slot machines and “Classical” gambling

German-style slot machines and related legal issues are described. On the basis of a survey on 437 members of self-help groups (Gamblers Anonymous) in Germany, slot machine gamblers were compared with casino gamblers on such variables as sociodemographic data, gambling behaviour, financial expenditure, emotional experience while gambling, symptoms of pathological gambling, psychosocial consequences and gambling related delinquency. The casino gamblers' gambling behaviour is financially more extensive. There were similarities regarding the emotional intensity of the gambling experience. However the casino gamblers show more pronounced symptoms of pathological gambling and the psychosocial consequences of their gambling behaviour are more severe. In spite of these differences, the data show that for young people slot machines can be as stimulating and therefore as dangerous as casino gambling. The young slot machine gambler runs a similar risk of acquiring a pathological gambling habit as the casino gambler.I would like to thank Dr. Gerhard Meyer for his support and his comments on the first draft of this article which is based on data from a research project led by him.     

The medical model of pathological gambling: Current shortcomings

Occasional, regular and pathological gambling are distributed in the population as a continuum. Failure to find categorical features of pathological gambling weakens the medical model for this condition, and the implications of this model concerning treatment, both in relation to the possibility of controlled gambling as an acceptable goal, and as to the effectiveness of social manipulations, such as restrictions of gambling outlets. Differences in gambling behavior patterns between pathological and nonpathological gamblers has not been consistently demonstrated and though some support exists for a relationship between addiction to gambling and alcohol, this could be accounted for by other factors than an addiction-prone personality. While findings support a relationship between personality variables and pathological gambling, the concept of a single personality type associated with the behavior seems unlikely. Nevertheless, evidence of physiological differences between pathological gamblers and controls has recently been reported and if established would provide strong support for a medical model, particularly one which allows for an interaction of physiological and sociological factors resulting in dimensional distribution of gambling behaviors.