Self-control exertion and the expression of time preference: Experimental results from Ethiopia

Classic economic theory assumes that time preference is a stable parameter. However, a large literature in psychology theory suggests that initial exertions of self-control affect one’s ability to deploy self-control subsequently. As savings decisions require individuals to make trade-offs between immediate gratification and future rewards, the self-control literature suggests that expression of time preference is susceptible to environmental influences, a contradiction of the neoclassical stability assumption. Empirical evidence is mixed. This paper proposes that self-control use has heterogeneous effects on the expression of economic time preference. Using a Stroop task to experimentally induce self-control fatigue in university students in Northern Ethiopia, we find that treated subjects with below median finances behave more impatiently in an incentivized time preference task than do untreated subjects. By contrast, treated relatively wealthy students do not behave differently than their untreated counterparts. Our results suggest that the psychological environment does affect the expression of time preference, but self-control use does not uniformly deplete patience for all subjects. Our results are most consistent with the process model of self-control.     

The effects of gainsharing on grievance rates and absenteeism over time

We sought to better understand the long-term impact of gainsharing by analyzing longitudinal changes in two key indicators of workplace union-management relations: grievance rates and employee absenteeism. Using a seven and one-half year longitudinal data set and an interrupted time series design, we found that the introduction of a Scanlon-type gainsharing plan was followed by a gradual and permanent decline in both of these indicators. These results provide strong quantitative evidence for the ability of gainsharing to transform existing labor-management relations. Using qualitative data, we consider the relationship between labor relations outcomes and other plant-level performance improvements following the introduction of gainsharing in this case.     

Subjective time discount rates among teenagers and adults: Evidence from Israel

This study is an empirical examination of the personal discount rates used by teenagers and adults. The participants answered a time-preference questionnaire and were asked about the bank interest paid for deposits. The results demonstrate that teenagers have a very high personal discount rate in comparison to adults. In addition, we found that receiving a regular allowance increases the teenagers’ willingness to wait. Our results indicate that the influence of teenagers’ poor financial knowledge, which ought to increase the personal discount rate, is stronger than the effect of their safety net that should reduce the personal discount rate.     

A time series analysis of Swedish illegitimacy rates, 1911-1974

Using a sociodemographic model of the determinants of illegitimacy rates, a multivariate regression analysis of annual change in age-specific Swedish illegitimacy rates is applied to the 1911-74 period. The proxy measure of change in sexual activity was significant for all age groups. Legitimation rates for out-of-wedlock conceived births were significant for all ages except teenagers, and the final predictor, women's status, was significant for all ages except women 35-44. Explained variance for annual change was highest among ages 20-24 (66%), 25-29 (66%), and 30-34 (63%) and lower among teens (34%) and women 35-44 (47%). These results support earlier research that used a sociodemographic model to explain post-World War II change in cross-national illegitimacy rates among 23 developed countries.     

The economics of the decision to join a union

This article attempts to bring about a synthesis of the theory of human capital and the disparate and largely empirical literature on the impact of unions on an individual worker’s terms and conditions of employment. This is done by modeling the decision of a worker to join a unionized firm or vote for a union in an NLRB election. From this model both the theoretically correct valuation and some empirical estimates of the value of the major wage and nonwage (seniority, discipline and discharge, strikes, dues) impacts of unions are presented. Extensions to risk averse workers, free rider problems, union elections and contract ratification votes are also briefly considered.     

Male pressure in the decision to remain childfree

To examine the negotiations and resolutions of disagreement over childlessness (the childfree lifestyle), questionnaires were sent to 100 married couples drawn randomly from membership lists of the National Organization for Non-Parents (NON). Responses of 40 couples were analyzed, in a synthesized theoretical framework drawn from Thibaut and Kelley (1959) and sex role socialization theory. The pattern that emerged was: if it was the husband's decision to remain childfree and not the wife's at first, she was likely to come into agreement with him; if it was the wife's decision to remain childfree, only very rarely would the husband consent. The more likely result, if she remained adamant, was divorce. Because marital power was so much greater for the husbands, the childfree life-style as an alterntive marital form may not differ greatly from traditional marital patterns. Author's Note: An earlier draft of this paper was presented at the annual meetings of the American Sociological Association, Chicago, September 1977. I am indebted to Dr. Roger Libby for his helpful comments, and to the anonymous reviewers for their suggestions.     

Factors affecting completion of a matched savings program: Impacts of time preference,discount rate,and financial hardship

There is a general consensus among researchers and policymakers that matched savings programs can significantly increase the propensity to save among low-income households. This study offers a unique contribution to the field by testing whether principals and theories from behavioral economics affect the decisions that participants make in these savings programs. Using a sample of people participating in the $aveNYC program, a matched savings program for very low-income households, we test whether information failure, time preference, and financial hardship affected people's ability to complete the program and receive the match money. We find that future orientation does not significantly impact program completion, but both information failure and financial hardship increase the hazard of early account closure. Although the pool of participants who did not receive the match was small, both information failure and financial hardship had large impacts on the risk of withdrawing the account before receiving a match. We discuss how these findings can inform program design and suggest future research.     

No time to lose: time constraints and physical activity in the production of health

Although individuals are all endowed with the same time budgets—1,440 minutes per day—time use patterns differ owing to heterogeneity in preferences and in other constraints. In today’s health policy arena there is considerable discussion, but little conclusive strategy, about how to improve health outcomes by increasing levels of physical activity. In this paper, we explore how individuals with different levels of human capital (educational attainment) allocate time to physically-demanding activities that we characterize as health-producing behaviors. Our hypothesis is that many individuals are confronted with significant constraints on their allocation of time to exercise, and that these constraints differ importantly by level of human capital (e.g., educational attainment). However, the prediction of how human capital influences time allocated to physical activity is ambiguous because there are both substitution and wealth effects at work: since the shadow price of non-labor time use is relatively greater for high-wage individuals, they may spend less time engaged in health-promoting activities (as has been documented for activities like sleep); yet individuals who have amassed high levels of human capital are both more able to afford health-producing behaviors and more likely to prefer greater levels of produced health. We explore a set of empirical questions suggested by this framework using data from the American Time Use Survey (ATUS), administered by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. We focus on respondents ages 25–64 using the combined 2005 and 2006 ATUS data. The ATUS data are based on daily time use diaries completed by individuals aged 15 and older, including information on a large number of detailed physical activity time uses. We compare time allocated to physical activity to time allocated to sleep, household and personal activities, care for others, work, and non-exercise leisure activities. Since the ATUS time use categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive (i.e. “multitasking” is not accommodated) we employ econometric share equation techniques to enforce the adding-up requirement that time use is constrained to 1,440 minutes per day. Our findings largely bear out the hypothesis that different levels of human capital endowment (educational attainment) result in different manifestations of how time is used in ways that may produce different health outcomes. While more-educated individuals tend to sleep much less than less-educated individuals and to work more hours, they are more likely to allocate time to physical activity in their leisure time. Our application of economic share equation techniques allows us to extend the literature by demonstrating not only how educational status is associated with time allocated to physical activity, but also where the other minutes of the day are allocated to and from.     

Intergovernmental negotiation, willingness to compromise, and voter preference reversals

A policy is the outcome of negotiations between two three-party parliamentary states. An election in jurisdiction A determines the composition of the legislature that selects a representative to negotiate an intergovernmental policy agreement with the representative from the legislature of jurisdiction B. Negotiations are modeled using Nash (Econometrica 18(2):155?C162, 1950) bargaining framework. With heterogeneous parties, agreements and electoral outcomes depend on the concavity of the utility functions of negotiators and on the relative location of their ideal policies, i.e., depend on the negotiators relative willingness to compromise. Agreements between the bargainers may not follow the ordering of the parties?? ideal policies. An electoral outcome where support for the center party comes from extreme voters may emerge.     

Social norms and tax compliance: Framing the decision to pay tax

Observed levels of tax compliance are higher than predicted levels (when predictions are based on Allingham and Sandmo's neoclassical model of tax evasion). They are higher if social norms recognise the importance of compliance. But how do social norms frame decisions to pay tax? Can prospect theory be applied to shed insight into the way that social norms exert their influence? An analysis of questionnaire responses (from Italy and from the UK) suggests that they exert their influence by changing the reference points that individuals use when they code changes as ‘gains’, or ‘losses’. The evidence suggests that social norms frame the decision to pay tax by changing individuals’ perceptions of their entitlement to income. This consideration is important when designing policy to deter evasion.     

Clearing the air: American Indian tribal college students' exposure to second hand smoke & attitudes towards smoke free campus policies

Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine knowledge, awareness, and support for campus smoke-free policies. Participants: 1,256 American Indian tribal college students from three tribal colleges in the Midwest and Northern Plains. Methods: Data are from an observational cross-sectional study of American Indian tribal college students, collected through a web-based survey. Results: Only 40% of tribal college students reported not being exposed to second hand smoke in the past 7 days. A majority of nonsmokers (66%) agreed or strongly agreed with having a smoke-free campus, while 34.2% of smokers also agreed or strongly agreed. Overall, more than a third (36.6%) of tribal college students were not aware of their campus smoking policies. Conclusions: Tribal campuses serving American Indian students have been much slower in adopting smoke-free campus policies. Our findings show that tribal college students would support a smoke-free campus policy.     

Dual-earner couples and the decision to work less: A conceptual model

This paper examines the factors that affect the decision made by dual-earner couples concerning the possibility of one (or both) partners working a reduced-hours schedule. We rely on a comprehensive review of the literature on part-time work among dual-earner couples and on the factors that affect the decisions couples make about their work hours as well as preliminary findings from our ongoing study to consider two key questions: (1) What factors do dual-earner couples take into account when they consider whether one or both might work a reduced-hours schedule? (2) If the couple decides that one partner will work a reduced-hours schedule, how do they decide which partner reduces the hours of employment? Most previous research has focused on the centrality of gender in the decisions that couples make concerning the hours that they work. However, our review of the literature and the preliminary findings of our current research suggest that there are other factors that affect (directly or indirectly) the couples' decisions related to part-time options. Based on this review we present a new decision-making model for two-earner couples that will have implications for future research and policy initiatives. This paper is particularly timely for several reasons: the number of dual-earner couples continues to increase; there is some indication that more employees would choose to reduce their work hours if that were a viable option; and recently, managers and professional workers have become more vocal about their interest in part-time career options.     

加强规划环评从决策源头预防环境污染

一、加强规划环评是转变经济发展方式的必然要求 （一）加强规划环评是从源头保护环境的需要 规划环境影响评价（以下简称规划环评）是指在规划编制阶段,对规划实施可能造成的环境影响进行分析、预测和评价,提出预防或者减轻不良环境影响的对策与措施以及进行跟踪监测的方法与制度。     

The importance of cultural and economic influences behind the decision to attend higher education

This paper examines the relationship between economic and cultural variables and the decision to attend university. We find that a student is more likely to aspire to attend university if: they have the Internet at home; are encouraged by their teachers; or attend a Catholic or independent school rather than a public school. Our analysis also suggests that the level of parent support is important (with a marginal effect larger than that for teacher encouragement) and this level of support may be linked to the parent's level of educational attainment. Importantly, we find that including cultural and economic variables in a model of students’ aspirations significantly increases the power to predict when a student does not aspire to attend university.     

Shame and Indonesian women victims of domestic violence in making the decision to divorce

ABSTRACT

Studies on divorce and shame in Indonesia have found that shame has been used by the Indonesian government to restrict divorce; however, this built on existing negative cultural constructions of the female divorcee. Although being a widow is also stigmatised by the public, this is to a lesser extent than for a divorced woman. Research has shown that the concept of shame has been one of the barriers that women face when considering disclosing their marital problems, in this instance domestic violence. In general, this concept continues to exert influence on and within Indonesian women as it has been culturally and legally embedded in Indonesian society. Regardless of their identities, all respondents felt shame when they experienced domestic violence. The experiences of Indonesian women in responding to and making decisions dealing with domestic violence differ because their response depends on their needs and interests.