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1.
Suzanne Ryan Jennifer Manlove Sandra L. Hofferth 《Population research and policy review》2006,25(1):103-126
Using discrete time event history analyses of data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), we examine the association
between state-level welfare waiver policies implemented before the 1996 welfare reform legislation and the risk of a nonmarital
subsequent birth. Our study makes a unique contribution to the existing literature by using a national-level sample of unmarried
mothers who ever received welfare. This high-risk sample represents the women of most interest to policymakers, as it is the
exact group to whom welfare reform is targeted—welfare mothers at risk of having nonmarital additional births. The state policies
we study include: family cap, earnings disregard, work exemptions, work requirements, and sanctions. We conclude that, although
reducing the number of nonmarital births is a key goal of welfare reform, state-established welfare waiver policies do not
have any influence on women’s childbearing behaviors in this sample, net of women’s individual characteristics and state economic
environments. Even the family cap policy, which was designed for the sole purpose of reducing additional births, has no significant
association with nonmarital subsequent childbearing. Instead, personal characteristics, not public policies, are stronger
determinants of women’s childbearing decisions. Age, race/ethnicity, marital status, number of previous children, education
level, and welfare receipt are significantly associated with nonmarital subsequent births. Overall, this paper contributes
to an expanding body of research that shows minimal effects of welfare waivers on fertility. Our work suggests that more targeted
policies are necessary to be able to influence individual family formation behaviors. 相似文献
2.
Although fertility is positively correlated across generations, the causal effect of children’s experience with larger sibships on their own fertility in adulthood is poorly understood. With the sex composition of the two firstborn children as an instrumental variable, we estimate the effect of sibship size on adult fertility using high-quality data from Norwegian administrative registers. Our study sample is all firstborns or second-borns during the 1960s in Norwegian families with at least two children (approximately 110,000 men and 104,000 women). An additional sibling has a positive effect on male fertility, mainly causing them to have three children themselves, but has a negative effect on female fertility at the same margin. Investigation into mediators reveals that mothers of girls shift relatively less time from market to family work when an additional child is born. We speculate that this scarcity in parents’ time makes girls aware of the strains of life in large families, leading them to limit their own number of children in adulthood. 相似文献
3.
Using data from five waves of the Women’s Employment Survey (WES; 1997–2003), we examine the links between low-income mothers’
employment patterns and the emotional behavior and academic progress of their children. We find robust and substantively important
linkages between several different dimensions of mothers’ employment experiences and child outcomes. The pattern of results
is similar across empirical approaches—including ordinary least squares and child fixed-effect models, with and without an
extensive set of controls. Children exhibit fewer behavior problems when mothers work and experience job stability (relative
to children whose mothers do not work). In contrast, maternal work accompanied by job instability is associated with significantly
higher child behavior problems (relative to employment in a stable job). Children whose mothers work full-time and/or have
fluctuating work schedules also exhibit significantly higher levels of behavior problems. However, full-time work has negative
consequences for children only when it is in jobs that do not require cognitive skills. Such negative consequences are completely
offset when this work experience is in jobs that require the cognitive skills that lead to higher wage growth prospects. Finally,
fluctuating work schedules and full-time work in non-cognitively demanding jobs are each strongly associated with the probability
that the child will repeat a grade or be placed in special education. 相似文献
4.
Australia’s low fertility rate is commonly attributed to deliberate decisions by women to avoid having children. Existing
theoretical explanations of fertility decision-making mostly view childbearing as a rational, voluntary process and focus
on the ‘costs’ to women of having children. Although this may help explain why women do not have children, it contributes
very little to understanding why women do have children. This study describes childbearing desires, expectations and outcomes
in a population-based sample of 569 30–34-years-old Australian women recruited from the Australian Electoral Roll in 2005.
Most women surveyed wanted to have children, and their childbearing outcomes were associated with biological, psychological
and social factors including the lack of a partner and adverse health conditions. The factors and their relative importance
varied by parity. Most women had fewer children than they desired, and many would have children, or more children, if their
circumstances were different. These data challenge prevailing assumptions about women’s childbearing behaviour that women
are able to choose when and if they have a child. Based on the findings, a conceptual framework of childbearing behaviour
is proposed which builds on existing theoretical explanations to explain why women do and do not have children, differences
by parity, and the role of circumstances in women’s childbearing behaviour. The findings and conceptual framework have implications
for public policies, and indicate that multiple approaches are required which are sensitive to and address the barriers women
face in family formation. 相似文献
5.
High U.S. incarceration rates have motivated recent research on the negative effects of imprisonment on later employment,
earnings, and family relationships. Because most men in jail and prison are fathers, a large number of children may be placed
at considerable risk by policies of incarceration. This article examines one dimension of the economic risk faced by children
of incarcerated fathers: the reduction in the financial support that they receive. We use a population-based sample of urban
children to examine the effects of incarceration on this support. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal regressions indicate
that formerly incarcerated men are less likely to contribute to their families, and those who do contribute provide significantly
less. The negative effects of incarceration on fathers’ financial support are due not only to the low earnings of formerly
incarcerated men but also to their increased likelihood to live apart from their children. Men contribute far less through
child support (formal or informal) than they do when they share their earnings within their household, suggesting that the
destabilizing effects of incarceration on family relationships place children at significant economic disadvantage. 相似文献
6.
A longitudinal analysis of family migration and the gender gap in earnings in the united states and great britain 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
This article uses longitudinal data for the United States and Great Britain to examine the impact of residential mobility
and childbirth on the earnings of women, their family earnings, and the related division of earnings by gender. This project
is the _ rst to compare explicitly the impact of childbirth and family migration on women’s earnings, and it extends prior
cross-sectional and longitudinal studies on isolated countries by providing a direct contrast between two major industrialized
nations, using comparable measures. The results indicate that families respond in similar ways in both countries to migration
and childbirth. In response to both migration and childbirth, women’s earnings fall at the time of the event and recover slowly
afterward, but the magnitude of the impact is roughly twice as large for childbirth as for migration. However, migration but
not the birth of a child is also associated with a significant increase in total family earnings because of increased husbands’
earnings. As a result, the effect of migration on the relative earnings of wives to husbands is similar to the effect of childbirth.
These results suggest that family migration should be given consideration in the literature on the gender earnings gap. 相似文献
7.
Espen Bratberg Karsten Marshall Elseth Rieck Kjell Vaage 《Journal of population economics》2014,27(4):1107-1126
This paper examines the potential effect of marital disruption on intergenerational earnings mobility. We observe the earnings of children born in 1960 and 1970 along with their biological fathers and mothers. The earnings mobility between sons and daughters relative to the earnings of their mothers and fathers is estimated. Our results suggest that divorce is associated with increased mobility, except between mothers’ and daughters’ earnings. Transition matrices reveal that the direction of the mobility is negative; children of divorced parents tend to move downward in the earnings distribution compared to children from intact families. Finally, we utilize information on the earnings mobility of siblings in dissolved families who grew up when the family was intact. The difference between pre- and post-divorce siblings is in turn compared with sibling differences in intact families. 相似文献
8.
Low fertility in most developed countries has prompted policy concern in relation to labour market supply, pensions, and expenditure
on health and welfare services as well as policy debate about both the cost of children and the opportunity costs of parenthood.
The extent to which family policy interventions can be effective in slowing or reversing fertility decline is much debated.
This paper, based on a fertility module of the Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 2005, examines the current fertility, and
ideal and expected fertility of a nationally representative sample of 455 parents of reproductive age and focuses on whether
they plan to have another child. It compares the characteristics of those who intend to have another child with those who
do not, and how parents with one child differ from those with more children. It addresses three questions about family size:
(1) fertility ideals, (2) resources and the economic implications of childbearing, and (3) opportunities for childbearing
and the effects of a late start on fertility expectations. It concludes that, despite a sustained period of low fertility
in Scotland, childbearing ideals are robust and explanations of low fertility must derive from difficulties in realising those
ideals. Difficulties in realising fertility aspirations are associated less with resources than with opportunities for childbearing,
especially the timing of first birth. Those who delay their first birth are less likely to realise their ideal family size,
and their lower fertility is associated with the opportunity costs of childbearing in terms of foregone qualifications, careers
and earnings. 相似文献
9.
Yuk King Lau 《Social indicators research》2010,95(3):363-376
Work and family conflicts are always viewed as issues of human resource management or occupational health. Insufficient attention
has been focused on the impact on child development and quality of parenting, especially regarding the impact of a father’s
work. To examine the impact of work and family conflicts on the quality of father–child interactions in Hong Kong, a cross-sectional
survey was conducted. In total, 556 pairs of working fathers and their school-aged children participated in the survey. The
findings of the survey indicated that fathers’ work-to-family conflicts negatively affected the quality of father–child interactions,
which in turn caused harm to children’s self-esteem. In addition to work-family conflicts, a low income level of the fathers,
a larger number of children in the family, and the presence in the family of children approaching adolescence were significant
risk factors to the quality of father–child interactions. The mothers’ active parental involvement and the complexity of the
fathers’ occupation were significant protective factors of the quality of father–child interactions. To facilitate strong
family bonding and good quality parenting, possible measures to ensure a healthy work-family balance among working fathers
are discussed. 相似文献
10.
City dwellers in Sub-Saharan Africa have increased roughly 600% in the last 35 years. Throughout the developing world, cities have expanded at a rate that has far outpaced rural population growth. Extensive data document lower fertility and mortality rates in cities than in rural regions. But slums, shantytowns, and squatters' settlements proliferate in many large cities. Martin Brockerhoff studies the reproductive and health consequences of urban growth, with an emphasis on maternal and child health. Brockerhoff reports that child mortality rates in large cities are highest among children born to mothers who recently migrated from rural areas or who live in low-quality housing. Children born in large cities have about a 30% higher risk of dying before they reach the age of 5 than those born in smaller cities. Despite this, children born to migrant mothers who have lived in a city for about a year have much better survival chances than children born in rural areas to nonmigrant mothers and children born to migrant mothers before or shortly after migration. Migration in developing countries as a whole has saved millions of children's lives. The apparent benefits experienced in the 1980s may not occur in the future, as cities continue to grow and municipal governments confront an overwhelming need for housing, jobs, and services. Another benefit is that fertility rates in African cities fell by about 1 birth per woman as a result of female migration from villages to towns in the 1980s and early 1990s. There will be an increasing need for donors and governments to concentrate family planning, reproductive health, child survival, and social services in cities, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, because there child mortality decline has been unexpectedly slow, overall fertility decline is not yet apparent in most countries, and levels of migration to cities are anticipated to remain high. 相似文献
11.
Opportunities for conceiving and bearing children are fewer when unions are not formed or are dissolved during the childbearing
years. At the same time, union instability produces a pool of persons who may enter new partnerships and have additional children
in stepfamilies. The balance between these two opposing forces and their implications for fertility may depend on the timing
of union formation and parenthood. In this article, we estimate models of childbearing, union formation, and union dissolution
for female respondents to the 1999 French Etude de l’Histoire Familiale. Model parameters are applied in microsimulations
of completed family size. We find that a population of women whose first unions dissolve during the childbearing years will
end up with smaller families, on average, than a population in which all unions remain intact. Because new partnerships encourage
higher parity progressions, repartnering minimizes the fertility gap between populations with and those without union dissolution.
Differences between the two populations are much smaller when family formation is postponed—that is, when union formation
and dissolution or first birth occurs after age 30, or when couples delay childbearing after union formation. 相似文献
12.
Family influences on family size preferences 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Several studies have demonstrated important effects of parents’ childbearing behavior on their children’s childbearing preferences and behavior. The study described here advances our understanding of these family influences by expanding the theoretical model to include parental preferences, siblings’ behavior, and changes in children’s preferences through early adulthood. Using intergenerational panel data from mothers and their children, we test the effects of both mothers’ preferences for their own fertility and mothers’ preferences for their children’s fertility. Although both types of maternal preferences influence children’s childbearing preferences, mothers’ preferences for their children’s behavior have the stronger and more proximate effects. Mothers’ preferences continue to influence their children’s preferences through early adulthood; siblings’ fertility is an additional determinant of children’s family size preferences. 相似文献
13.
Changing the Gender Balance in Caring: Fatherhood and the Division of Parental Leave in Norway 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Trude Lappegard 《Population research and policy review》2008,27(2):139-159
In this article, we study fathers’ use of parental leave in Norway, using register data from 1993 to 1997. In 1993, a special
father’s quota (1 month) was introduced in the parental leave program. The father’s quota is a success in the sense that 85%
of fathers entitled to the leave use it, but few take more than their quota (1 month). One policy intention was to make a
real change in the gender balance in care. The analyses show that gender balance in breadwinning has a strong effect on fathers’
use of parental leave: controlling for parents’ educational level, labor market attachment and father’s income, we find that
the more mothers contribute to the family economy and the more equalized their earnings are, the more parental leave fathers
take. 相似文献
14.
Lisa A. Gennetian 《Journal of population economics》2005,18(3):415-436
Do children who live with both biological parents fare better than children in other types of family structures? Does the presence of step or half-siblings affect child well-being? This study examines the effect of family structure on young children's achievement addressing two sources of potential bias: (1) misclassification of blended families and (2) the omission of within-family and individual time-invariant unobserved characteristics. The results show that family structure, when defined using traditional classifications, has little effect on young children's achievement test scores. When the definition of family type is expanded, living in a blended family and living in some types of single mother families, appears to have a small, unfavorable relationship with children's achievement. 相似文献
15.
Genetic ability and intergenerational earnings mobility 总被引:2,自引:2,他引:0
This paper examines the role of genetic ability in generating the strong positive intergenerational earnings correlation observed
in the USA. We compare the intergenerational wage and earnings elasticities of adopted children with these of non-adopted
children. Because adopted children’s genetic ability does not depend on that of their adoptive parents, the differences between
these two samples reveal the importance of genetic ability in transmitting earnings ability across generations. We find that
the earnings correlation between fathers and children would be halved if their biological link was removed. Our results suggest
that inheritable ability plays a very important role in passing parents’ earnings ability on to their children.
相似文献
16.
Gunnar Andersson Michaela Kreyenfeld Tatjana Mika 《Journal of Population Research》2014,31(4):287-316
This study investigates the role of female labour-market attachment and earnings in childbearing progressions in two very different European contexts. By applying event-history techniques to German and Danish register data during 1981–2001, we demonstrate how female earnings relate to first, second and third birth propensities. Our study shows that female earnings are positively associated with first birth fertility in Denmark, while this is not the case in West Germany. We interpret our findings based on the fact that Danish social context and policy encourage women to establish themselves in the labour market before becoming mothers, while the German institutional context during the 1980s and 1990s was not geared towards encouraging maternal employment. For higher-order births, the results are less clearcut. For Denmark we find a slightly positive correlation between female earnings and second-birth fertility, while the association is somewhat negative for third-order births. In Germany, women tend to leave the labour market when becoming mothers. Non-employed mothers have elevated second and, in particular, third-birth rates. For the group of mothers who are employed, we find only a weak association between their earnings and higher-order fertility. 相似文献
17.
Using 30 years of longitudinal data from a nationally representative cohort of women, we study the association between breastfeeding duration and completed fertility, fertility expectations, and birth spacing. We find that women who breastfeed their first child for five months or longer are a distinct group. They have more children overall and higher odds of having three or more children rather than two, compared with women who breastfeed for shorter durations or not at all. Expected fertility is associated with initiating breastfeeding but not with how long mothers breastfeed. Thus, women who breastfeed longer do not differ significantly from other breastfeeding women in their early fertility expectations. Rather, across the life course, these women achieve and even exceed their earlier fertility expectations. Women who breastfeed for shorter durations (1–21 weeks) are more likely to fall short of their expected fertility than to achieve or exceed their expectations, and they are significantly less likely than women who breastfeed for longer durations (≥22 weeks) to exceed their expected fertility. In contrast, women who breastfeed longer are as likely to exceed as to achieve their earlier expectations, and the difference between their probability of falling short versus exceeding their fertility expectations is relatively small and at the boundary of statistical significance (p = .096). These differences in fertility are not explained by differences in personal and family resources, including family income or labor market attachment. Our findings suggest that breastfeeding duration may serve as a proxy for identifying a distinct approach to parenting. Women who breastfeed longer have reproductive patterns quite different than their socioeconomic position would predict. They both have more children and invest more time in those children. 相似文献
18.
This article uses data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine whether family instability is associated
with changes in perceived social support, material hardship, maternal depression, and parenting stress among mothers of young
children. In addition to accounting for the number of transitions that a mother experiences during the first five years of
her child’s life, we pay close attention to the type and timing of these transitions. We find that mothers who transition
to cohabitation or marriage with their child’s biological father experience declines in material hardship and that those who
transition to cohabitation or marriage with another man exhibit modest declines in both material hardship and depression.
Mothers who exit cohabiting or marital relationships encounter decreases in perceived social support and increases in material
hardship, depression, and parenting stress. Overall, our results suggest that both the type and, to a much lesser degree,
the timing of family structure transitions may influence maternal well-being. 相似文献
19.
Labor migration profoundly affects households throughout rural Africa. This study looks at how men’s labor migration influences
marital fertility in a context where such migration has been massive while its economic returns are increasingly uncertain.
Using data from a survey of married women in southern Mozambique, we start with an event-history analysis of birth rates among
women married to migrants and those married to nonmigrants. The model detects a lower birth rate among migrants’ wives, which
tends to be partially compensated for by an increased birth rate upon cessation of migration. An analysis of women’s lifetime
fertility shows that it decreases as the time spent in migration by their husbands accrues. When we compare reproductive intentions
stated by respondents with migrant and nonmigrant husbands, we find that migrants’ wives are more likely to want another child
regardless of the number of living children, but the difference is significant only for women who see migration as economically
benefiting their households. Yet, such women are also significantly more likely to use modern contraception than other women.
We interpret these results in light of the debate on enhancing versus disrupting effects of labor migration on families and
households in contemporary developing settings. 相似文献
20.
In this article, we study the effects of prenatal health on educational attainment and on the reproduction of family background
inequalities in education. Using Finnish birth cohort data, we analyze several maternal and fetal health variables, many of
which have not been featured in the literature on long-term socioeconomic effects of health despite the effects of these variables
on birth and short-term health outcomes. We find strong negative effects of mother’s prenatal smoking on educational attainment,
which are stronger if the mother smoked heavily but are not significant if she quit during the first trimester. Anemia during
pregnancy is also associated with lower levels of attained education. Other indicators of prenatal health (pre-pregnancy obesity,
mother’s antenatal depressed mood, hypertension and preeclampsia, early prenatal care visits, premature birth, and small size
for gestational age) do not predict educational attainment. Our measures explain little of the educational inequalities by
parents’ class or education. However, smoking explains 12%—and all health variables together, 19%—of the lower educational
attainment of children born to unmarried mothers. Our findings point to the usefulness of proximate health measures in addition
to general ones. They also point to the potentially important role played by early health in intergenerational processes. 相似文献