Reactions to Job Content Plateaus: Examining Role Ambiguity and Hierarchical Plateaus as Moderators

Plateauing research often reveals a negative relationship between job content plateauing (i.e., lacking challenge in one's job) and work attitudes. This study explores situations where job content plateauing is associated with fewer negative work attitudes, revealing role ambiguity (i.e., being unclear about job duties and responsibilities) and hierarchical plateauing (i.e., low likelihood of promotions) as moderators of the job content plateau‐work attitude relationship. Specifically, job content plateaued employees reported greater job satisfaction and organizational commitment if they were not also experiencing a hierarchical plateau. Job content plateaued employees also reported greater job satisfaction when role ambiguity was low.     

Black heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men in the United States

Although the direction and intensity of Black heterosexuals’ attitudes toward homosexuality have been topics for considerable speculation, empirical data from representative samples previously have not been available. In the current article we report findings from a two‐wave telephone survey with a national probability sample of 391 Black heterosexual adults. Results indicated that negative attitudes toward homosexuality are widespread but do not appear to be more prevalent among Blacks than among Whites. Gender differences in Black heterosexuals’ attitudes (men's attitudes toward gay men were more negative than their attitudes toward lesbians or women's attitudes toward gay men) appeared to result primarily from men's greater tendency to regard male homosexuality as unnatural. The single most important predictor of attitudes was the attribution of choice to sexual orientation: Respondents who believed that homosexuality is beyond an individual's control expressed significantly more favorable attitudes toward gay men and lesbians than did respondents who regarded homosexuality as a choice. Consistent with previous research in predominantly White samples, respondents were more likely to express favorable attitudes if they were highly educated, unmarried, politically liberal, registered to vote and not religious, and if they included Blacks in their concept of gay men. In addition, respondents reported more favorable attitudes if they had experienced personal contact with gay men or lesbians, but this was not a significant predictor of attitudes when other variables were statistically controlled. Possible differences between Blacks’ and Whites’ social constructions of sexual orientation are discussed.     

Employment discrimination against older workers: an experimental study of hiring practices

Pairs of resumes, one for a 57-year-old and the other for a 32-year-old, were mailed to 775 large firms and employment agencies across the United States. Although the resumes presented equal qualifications, the older job seeker received a less favorable employer response 26.5% of times when a position appeared to be vacant. Vigorous enforcement of equal opportunity laws as well as initiatives to change employer attitudes are appropriate responses to such discrimination. The technique of employment testing, demonstrated in this research, can be useful in both efforts.     

Employment Discrimination Against Older Workers

Pairs of resumes, one for a 57-year-old and the other for a 32-year-old, were mailed to 775 large firms and employment agencies across the United States. Although the resumes presented equal qualifications, the older job seeker received a less favorable employer response 26.5% of times when a position appeared to be vacant. Vigorous enforcement of equal opportunity laws as well as initiatives to change employer attitudes are appropriate responses to such discrimination. The technique of employment testing, demonstrated in this research, can be useful in both efforts.     

Acculturation, gender stereotypes, and attitudes about dating violence among Latino youth

This study examined the relationship between personal characteristics (gender, acculturation, belief in gender stereotypes, recent dating experiences), and attitudes and knowledge about dating violence in urban Latino youth (N = 678). All participants completed self-administered surveys at school. Relative to girls, boys held more problematic (proviolence) attitudes about dating violence and reported less knowledge about dating violence and its consequences. Teens who were more traditional (less acculturated), those who endorsed gender stereotypes, and those who reported recent fearful dating experiences tended to report less knowledge about abuse and lower endorsement of nonviolent attitudes. Multivariate analyses revealed that all four personal variables predicted dating violence knowledge. By contrast, attitudes were predicted by endorsement of gender stereotypes only, or gender stereotypes and gender. Implications for dating violence interventions and future directions for research are explored.     

Sex differences in how heterosexuals think about lesbians and gay men: Evidence from survey context effects

Two experiments were embedded in a 1997 telephone survey of U.S. households to assess possible differences in how heterosexuals think about lesbians versus gay men. In each experiment, one half of the sample first responded to one or more attitude items about lesbians, followed by comparable items about gay men. The other half received the gay male item(s) first. Results are reported separately for White (N = 976) and Black (N = 479) heterosexuals. For White and Black men alike, self‐reported attitudes toward lesbians tended to be more favorable when they were assessed without reference to gay men (i.e., lesbian items presented first). White men's reactions to gay men tended to be less negative when assessed after the questions about lesbians were presented, but Black men's responses did not consistently show this pattern. For some items, women gave more favorable ratings of lesbians and less favorable ratings of gay men when the lesbian items were presented first. The findings suggest possible gender differences in the cognitive organization of heterosexuals ‘ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.     

The Impact of Gender and Marital Status on Attitudes and Responses to Unemployment

The study examined differences in job search intensity, attitudes toward unemployment, and related responses among a sample of Israelis, based on gender and marital status (single vs. married). The findings indicate that gender-based differences were greater than those based on marital status. Regarding the impact of gender, women were more likely than men to reject jobs because of conflict with family responsibilities or unsuitable working conditions. Both men and women mentioned gender atypical characteristics of occupations as a reason for rejecting employement, although this tendency was especially prevalent among married women. Women also reported more stress reactions and decline in health as an outcome of unemployment. Regarding the impact of marital status, married men tended to seek jobs more intensively than respondents in the other research groups. Single respondents of both sexes were more likely than their married counterparts to view unemployment as a personal advantage because it gives them more time to themselves. Moreover, married respondents of both sexes were more likely to reject job offers because of conflict with family responsibilities or unsuitable working conditions. In light of the findings, practical recommendations for counselors are provided.     

Attitudes toward genetic testing and fetal diagnosis, 1990-1996

With few exceptions, existing research on attitudes toward genetic testing and prenatal diagnosis is based on small studies using nonprobability samples of specialized populations. In this paper, we use a nationally representative sample from the General Social Survey to report on attitudinal change between 1990 and 1996, and to explore socio-demographic predictors of public views on genetic technology and reproduction in the context of changing mass media coverage between 1988 and 1995. During that period, media coverage of prenatal testing became both less frequent and less favorable, despite increasing use of this technology, whereas media reports about other types of genetic testing increased in frequency and became more favorable. Between 1990 and 1996, attitudes toward genetic testing remained stable, although the attitudes of specific demographic subgroups may be changing in different directions. Attitudes toward abortion in case of genetic defect became more negative over the period studied. We explore some of the implications of these findings.     

Attitudes toward Familial Obligation in the United States and in Japan*

With the global changes in industrial structure and demographic composition, families across the globe are facing increasing economic constraints reconciling their responsibility for the welfare of their children with the needs of older family members. Utilizing data from the Generations Survey, this article documents, and examines the sociodemographic determinants of and attitudes toward familial obligation in the United States and in Japan. The data show that Americans strongly believe in parental obligation for the provision of education for children. Although age differences in attitudes are more visible in Japan, the data from both countries indicate a strong familial cross‐generational obligation between the young and the old. However, in both the United States and Japan, the “middle generation” is less likely to express attitudes supporting intergenerational transfers of private property. Multivariate analysis reveals that demographic and socioeconomic attributes explain only part of the age differentials in attitudes. Furthermore, in both countries, the receipt of an inheritance and the expectation of receiving an inheritance in the future have positive effects on attitudes toward familial responsibility. The article concludes by discussing the implications of the findings for current and future patterns of family support systems and the transmission of economic advantage.     

Separating Spheres? Diverging Trends in Youth's Gender Attitudes About Work and Family

The authors investigated whether trends in attitudes about gender were consistent with the gender stall primarily occurring in the family domain and examined potential mechanisms associated with changing gender norms. Using data from Monitoring the Future surveys (1976–2015), the authors assessed three components of trends in youth's beliefs about gender: the marketplace, the family, and mothers' employment. Findings showed continued increases in egalitarianism from 1976 through the mid‐1990s across all three dimensions. Thereafter, support for egalitarianism in the public sphere plateaued at high levels, rising support for mothers' employment persisted at a slower pace, and conventional ideology about gender in families returned. The changing demographic composition of American high school students did not account for the gender attitude trends. Youth's mothers' employment and increased education were related to increased egalitarianism. Changes in population averages of mothers' employment and educational attainment were only weakly associated with increases in egalitarian attitudes.     

Knowledge,attitudes, and behavior related to condom use and STDs in a high risk population

Since the mid‐1980s, the incidence of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among Blacks has increased dramatically nationwide, particularly in Philadelphia and other major urban areas. One approach to this public health problem is to prevent the further transmission of disease through the use of condoms during sexual activity. To provide a basis for condom‐promotion programs within a high risk Black urban community, we explored condom use behavior and the relationship between condom use and variables related to demographic characteristics, knowledge, attitudes, perceived risk and concern about STDs, and STD history. A household survey was conducted of a stratified, quota sample of 925 male and female adolescent and adult residents in North and West Philadelphia. These areas have the highest rate of STDs in the city and among the highest rates in the country. The survey revealed a trichotomy among respondents with respect to condom use: approximately one‐third of the sample used condoms consistently; one‐third used them intermittently, and one‐third never used condoms. Consistent condom users tended to use condoms with both steady and casual partners; less frequent condom users tended to use condoms with partners who could be considered higher risk: new partners and casual partners. Although condom use rates did not vary as a function of age among males, women under age 20 were far more likely to use condoms than were other female age groups. Knowledge about STDs and prevention was not found to predict condom use. Negative attitudes toward condoms were related to non‐use, with the exception of women who used condoms in perceived high risk situations despite negative attitudes.     

In search of the glass ceiling: gender and recruitment to management in Norway's state bureaucracy1

There are still fewer female than male managers in Norway's state bureaucracy. This article asks if there are organizational barriers which prevent women from entering these positions. Is there really a glass ceiling, or must one look outside the organizational environment to find an explanation? Is it rather the case that the scarcity of female managers is caused by women's own preferences or their life situations outside work? Or do both contribute to the situation? The study shows that female managers are treated just as well as male managers in central parts of the state bureaucracy. Employers give equal shares of respect and attention to both genders. Female managers are encouraged to apply for the same number of jobs as men and are offered an equal number of jobs as men when they apply; in fact, women are offered more jobs than men, when one controls for the number of job applications. This indicates that organizational barriers are not the problem. The study also shows that there are no differences in work orientation between male and female managers. Female managers are just as ambitious as male managers. Nor do female managers find it more difficult than male managers to combine work and family life. So, how can one explain the low number of female managers? The study shows that one reason can be that female managers apply for management jobs less often than their male colleagues. The cause of this seems to be anticipated discrimination rather than lack of ambition or self‐confidence. However, this slows down women's movement into higher management positions in the state bureaucracy.     

Factors influencing college women's contraceptive behavior: An application of the integrative model of behavioral prediction

Objective: This study investigated variables within the Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction (IMBP) as well as differences across socioeconomic status (SES) levels within the context of inconsistent contraceptive use among college women. Participants: A nonprobability sample of 515 female college students completed an Internet-based survey between November 2014 and February 2015. Methods: Respondents were asked about their contraception use, knowledge and information sources, demographic information, and IMBP factors, including attitudes, norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC). Results: While overall attitudes, norms, PBC, and intentions for contraceptive use were high, only 46.8% of women used contraception consistently. Data also revealed only moderate levels of knowledge about contraception. While there were no differences across SES levels for attitudes, PBC, norms or knowledge, SES levels did differ in sources used to acquire contraceptive information. Conclusions: This study highlights the need to consider where college women acquire contraceptive information which is associated with SES.     

Attitudes towards Women's Work Roles and Women Managers in a Sports Organization: The Case of Turkey

In recent years the need to apply gender equality principles to all sectors of Turkish society has been widely acknowledged and has become an increasingly important issue because of the modernization and recent Europeanization project of Turkey. However, even as this has been acknowledged, attempts to apply gender equality in employment in sports organizations have been mostly ignored. This article reports on the attitudes towards women's work roles and women managers of 83 women and 138 men who work in the General Directorate of Youth and Sport (GDYS) which is the biggest national governing body for sport in Turkey. The findings of this study indicate that both female and male workers in the GDYS scored lower on their attitudes towards women's work roles and held more negative attitudes towards women managers. Although male workers scored higher on attitudes towards women's work roles than female workers they held more negative attitudes towards women managers. In addition, femininity scores were found to be the only predictor of attitudes towards women's career advancement. Finally, we discussed these findings regarding previous studies and the sociocultural context of Turkey.     

Obtaining data linkage consent for children: factors influencing outcomes and potential biases

Understanding factors associated with consent for data linkage has largely focussed on adults, but parents or guardians can also be asked to consent on behalf of children for whom they are responsible. A framework for consent decision is presented, and is tested using a large nationally representative survey asking mothers to consent for both themselves and their children for two sets of records. Nearly all mothers give the same consent outcome for all their children. Consent rates are higher for education records than for health records and higher for mothers than children. Multivariate analyses suggest that minorities are generally less likely to consent, while more trust increases chances of consent. Several survey environment factors are important, with harder-to-contact respondents less likely to consent, while the presence of others and higher interviewer-respondent rapport lead to a higher chance of consent. These findings suggest potential methodologies to improve consent rates and possibly minimise bias. This is important given significant demographic differences between children across consent outcomes. However, data from a survey of 10–15 year olds in the study shows fewer differences for several important behaviours and attitudes across consent outcomes.     

Implications of Sex Guilt: A Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis of the literature examining the outcomes related to feelings of sex guilt was conducted. The analysis demonstrates gendered differences in the experience of sex guilt and myriad attitudinal and behavioral impacts. Specifically, men report lower levels of sex guilt, r?=??.227 than do women and implications of sex guilt experience are vast, including its association with engagement in less sexual activity, r?=??.337, less favorable attitudes toward sex and lessened use of contraceptives, r?=??.276, reduced reports of sexual arousal in response to an explicitly sexual media content, r?=??.308, less positive emotional response to sexually explicit media content, r?=??.367, reduced level of sexual information accuracy, r?=??.324, and less positive attitudes toward sexual behavior, r?=??404. Sex guilt is positively related to level of religiosity/religious behavior, r?=?.439. The findings suggest that sex guilt provides a consistent set of responses to sexual information and media content as well as a motivational basis for behavior. These outcomes are further explicated and discussed.     

Employers' knowledge and attitudes regarding organizational policy toward workers caring for aging family members

The study examined employers' knowledge of and attitudes toward working carers who care for aging family members. The study was based on the ecological model. One hundred employers were interviewed using structured questionnaires and 13 employers by additional in-depth interviews. Both research instruments included areas of disruption to the organization, existing policies, and feasibility as to developing appropriate policies to support working carers. Results show that caregiving caused a disruption in workers' functioning mainly by being absent, leaving work early, and coming to work late. Usually, there was "no policy," and half of the employers did not support introducing such a policy. Women managers in public organizations, who had less seniority and less previous experience with working-carers, tended to be more positive about supportive policies. Recommendations are included.     

Abuse during and before pregnancy: prevalence and cultural correlates

This study examined the prevalence of abuse during pregnancy and the influence of cultural norms and acculturation on abuse in 1,004 Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban American, Central American, African American and Anglo American women. Women were recruited from consecutive delivery logs in general community hospitals in Florida and Massachusetts. The Index of Spouse Abuse and the Abuse Assessment Screen ascertained history of adult physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, abuse during pregnancy, and childhood sexual abuse. An Interview Protocol assessed cultural attitudes, acculturation, and demographic information. Hispanic American women, as a whole, did not differ significantly from Anglo American women in their prevalence of abuse during pregnancy, after controlling for sociodemographic variables. However, Cuban American and Central American partners were significantly less likely to abuse their pregnant partners than were other groups even after adjustment. Women who spoke only Spanish (less acculturated) were less likely to report physical abuse from their partners both before and during pregnancy. Cultural norms, such as a partner's belief in wife/mother role supremacy and cultural group acceptability of men hitting women, were significantly positively related to both physical and emotional abuse. Other risk factors for abuse were the abuser not being the biological father of the baby, low income and little education, and being unmarried.     

CREDENTIALS AND CAPACITIES:

The "new structuralism" in stratification research has made important contributions to our understanding of job assignment by directing attention to the demand side of labor markets. This article builds on this work by conceptualizing job matching in terms of labor market transactions (hirings and promotions). Detailed quantitative and case study evidence is presented to ask how employers perceive the link between schooling and the acquisition of skills required for job performance. The results show that employers generally see a link between schooling and the acquisition of both general and specific skills, but rarely feel very strongly about this and are often willing to concede that skills might well have been acquired elsewhere. Managers hiring from the outside and managers assigning promotions differ in the information they glean from the educational credentials of job candidates. Little evidence is found that any one theory (human capital, screening, credentialism, or cultural capital) can account for the pattern of results.     

The stigmatization of smokers: an empirical investigation

This study examines the social stigmatization of tobacco smokers, i.e., the extent to which smokers are seen as discredited persons. A representative sample of residents of a major Canadian city was interviewed. Clear evidence of an unfavorable stereotype of smokers was found. The ex-smoker enjoys a positive image, but one which is slightly less favorable than that of someone who has never smoked. A majority of non-smoking respondents preferred non-smokers in roles in which the role incumbents were likely to be in close proximity. Friendship networks and marital relationships tended to be segregated along lines of smoking behavior. Sociodemographic and attitudinal correlates of anti-smoker attitudes are explored. The implications of stigmatization for changing smokers' behavior are examined.