Facial emotion identification and sexual assault risk detection among college student sexual assault victims and nonvictims

Objective: High rates of sexual victimization among college students necessitate further study of factors associated with sexual assault risk detection. The present study examined how social information processing relates to sexual assault risk detection as a function of sexual assault victimization history. Participants: 225 undergraduates (M_age = 19.12, SD = 1.44; 66% women). Methods: Participants completed an online questionnaire assessing victimization history, an emotion identification task, and a sexual assault risk detection task between June 2013 and May 2014. Results: Emotion identification moderated the association between victimization history and risk detection such that sexual assault survivors with lower emotion identification accuracy also reported the least risk in a sexual assault vignette. Conclusions: Findings suggest that differences in social information processing, specifically recognition of others' emotions, are associated with sexual assault risk detection. College prevention programs could incorporate emotional awareness strategies, particularly for men and women who are sexual assault survivors.     

College Women's Experiences with Physically Forced,Alcohol- or Other Drug-Enabled,and Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault Before and Since Entering College

Objective: Research has shown associations between college women's alcohol and/or drug consumption and the risk of sexual assault, but few studies have measured the various means by which sexual assault is achieved.

Participants: The authors' Campus Sexual Assault Study obtained self-report data from a random sample of undergraduate women (N = 5,446).

Methods: The authors collected data on sexual assault victimization by using a cross-sectional, Web-based survey, and they conducted analyses assessing the role of substance use. The authors also compared victimizations before and during college, and across years of study.

Results: Findings indicate that almost 20% of undergraduate women experienced some type of completed sexual assault since entering college. Most sexual assaults occurred after women voluntarily consumed alcohol, whereas few occurred after women had been given a drug without their knowledge or consent.

Conclusions: The authors discuss implications for campus sexual assault prevention programs, including the need for integrated substance use and sexual victimization prevention programming.     

Reciprocal relationships among alcohol use, risk perception, and sexual victimization: a prospective analysis

OBJECTIVE: The authors' purpose in this study was to assess longitudinally the relationships among alcohol use, risk perception, and sexual victimization. PARTICIPANTS: Three hundred and seventy-two women from 2 midsized universities made up the sample. METHODS: Participants filled out questionnaires regarding history of sexual victimization, alcohol use, and perceived personal risk for sexual assault in the following 2 months. The authors then reassessed participants at 2 follow-up periods. RESULTS: The pattern of results suggested that that the relationship between alcohol use and sexual victimization was complex and that alcohol use may moderate the relation between history of victimization and revictimization for women with sexual assault histories. In particular, results indicated an increase in risk for sexual revictimization with increases in alcohol use for women with a history of sexual victimization. The data did not, however, support a reciprocal relationship between sexual assault and drinking (eg, in that a sexual victimization during one time period did not predict drinking behaviors in subsequent time periods). CONCLUSIONS: These results underscore the importance of both alcohol and sexual assault programming on college campuses.     

Does Drinking Alcohol Prior to Sexual Activity Influence College Students’ Consent?

Objectives: This study assessed the extent to which consuming alcohol prior to sexual activity influenced college students' verbal/behavior cues utilized to communicate consent (external consent) as well as their feelings associated with consent (internal consent). Methods: Data was collected via paper-and-pencil surveys administered to heterosexual college students (N = 794) in the United States. Results: After controlling for gender, relationship status, rape myth acceptance, and alcohol expectancies, findings indicated that alcohol consumption prior to sexual activity was associated with both internal and external consent. Conclusions: Current findings can help inform sexual assault prevention education programming given the high rates of sexual assault occurring on college campuses that involve alcohol consumption.     

Prevalence and predictors of sexual assault among a college sample

Objective: This study examined the prevalence and correlates of precollege, college-onset, and repeat sexual assault (SA) within a representative student sample. Participants: A representative sample of 7,603 students. Methods: Incoming first-year students completed a survey about their exposure to broad SA prior to college, prior trauma, personality, relationships, and mental health. Broad SA was then reassessed each spring semester while enrolled. Results: Nearly 20% of the sample reported experiencing broad SA, with women endorsing significantly higher rates compared with males. Prior victimization before coming to college was related to a greater risk of victimization in college, and there was no statistically significant difference between males and females who reported revictimization. Correlates of college-onset broad SA were found and are discussed. Conclusions: Given the need for SA intervention and prevention on college campuses, identification of factors potentially contributing to exposure within this population is essential.     

Contributions of Child Sexual Abuse,Self-Blame,Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms,and Alcohol Use to Women’s Risk for Forcible and Substance-Facilitated Sexual Assault

Child sexual abuse and adult sexual assault have been linked to increased self-blame, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and alcohol use. The current study aims to examine (a) whether these constructs explain women’s risk for later adult sexual assault and revictimization, (b) whether such factors differentially confer risk for specific types of adult sexual assault (i.e., substance-facilitated and forcible), and (c) if self-blame confers risk indirectly through other risk factors. Multiple types of self-blame, posttraumatic stress, and alcohol use were examined among 929 female college students as serial mediators of the relationship between child sexual abuse and adult sexual assault and as risk factors for sexual revictimization among child sexual abuse survivors. In the model predicting risk for substance-facilitated adult sexual assault, child sexual abuse indirectly predicted greater risk for substance-facilitated adult sexual assault mediated through two separate paths: global blame-to-posttraumatic-stress and global blame-to-alcohol use. In the model predicting risk for forcible adult sexual assault, child sexual abuse directly predicted greater risk for forcible adult sexual assault, and this relation was mediated by the global blame-to-posttraumatic-stress path. Among child sexual abuse survivors, child sexual abuse specific characterological and behavioral self-blame directly predicted greater risk for forcible and substance-facilitated revictimization, but the pathways were not mediated by posttraumatic stress or alcohol use. Results emphasize the importance of assessing different types of self-blame in predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms as well as examining risk for sexual victimization and revictimization. Findings did not support hypotheses that increased posttraumatic stress would predict increased alcohol use but did indicate that heightened self-blame is consistently associated with heightened posttraumatic stress and that heightened global self-blame predicts increased alcohol use. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.     

Substance use and vulnerability to sexual and physical aggression: a longitudinal study of young adults

Using data from 2,170 individuals who participated in Waves 8 (age 23) and 9 (age 29) of a multiyear panel study, this study examined whether alcohol and marijuana use in young adulthood increase one's risk for experiencing subsequent sexual or physical assault victimization, whether victims' own violent behavior or involvement in the sale of drugs explain any effects of substance use on victimization, and whether these associations differ by gender. Controlling for prior victimization, we found that marijuana use, but not alcohol use, predicted women's and men's subsequent sexual victimization and men's subsequent physical assault victimization, and that heavy alcohol use, but not marijuana use, predicted women's subsequent physical assault victimization. Whereas the links from marijuana use to victimization were explained by users' own violent behavior, the link from alcohol use to women's physical assault victimization was not.     

Date fighting experiences among college students: are they associated with other health-risk behaviors?

OBJECTIVE: The authors examined the clustering of health-risk behaviors among college students who reported date fight involvement. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: The authors administered a Web-based survey to a stratified random sample of 3,920 college students from 10 universities in North Carolina. RESULTS: Among men, 5.6% reported date fight victimization, and 1% reported date fight perpetration. Victimization among men was associated with (1) first drink at age 15 years or younger, (2) a recent threat of violence by someone who had been drinking, (3) smoking, (4) amphetamine use, and (5) older age. Among women, 6.7% reported date fight victimization, which was associated with (1) older age, (2) assault from a student who had been drinking, (3) sex with 2 or more persons, (4) consumption of alcohol in high school, (5) illegal drug use, (6) nonsexual assault requiring medical treatment, and (7) living off campus. Of the women, 4.2% reported date fight perpetration, which was associated with (1) minority race/ethnicity, (2) older age, (3) frequency of sexual intercourse, and (4) alcohol and marijuana use. CONCLUSIONS: Date fight experiences were associated with multiple health-risk behaviors among this sample of college students.     

Unwanted sexual contact on campus: a comparison of women's and men's experiences

While sexual victimization continues to be a problem on college campuses, recent attention has been drawn to understanding gender differences in victimization rates and consequences. To date, these studies remain relatively few in number. The current study surveyed 651 male and female undergraduate students about unwanted sexual experiences during 1 academic year. Comparison of men and women revealed expected differences in incidence rates, with women reporting higher rates of unwanted contact. Within the subsample of reported victims, however, there was gender similarity in terms of the context of unwanted sexual experiences. Analyses also revealed the negative consequences of these experiences for both men and women and low rates of disclosure regardless of gender. Across the full sample of students surveyed, there were interesting gender differences in knowledge of campus support services, with women more likely to have attended a prevention program and to have indicated greater knowledge of rape crisis services.     

A prospective study of sexual assault and alcohol use among first-year college women

This study prospectively examined the relation between alcohol use and sexual assault in a sample (N = 319) of first-year college women. Both frequency of drinking and frequency of binge drinking were measured. Over the course of their freshman year, 19.3% reported experiencing at least one sexual assault. Frequent binge drinking and frequent drinking predicted a subsequent sexual assault; however, experiencing a sexual assault did not predict changes in alcohol use. Frequent binge drinking demonstrated a stronger association with sexual assault than did frequent drinking. Findings help clarify the relation between alcohol use and sexual assault in college women and call for continued differentiation in assessment of alcohol use.     

College women's perceived risk to experience sexual victimization: a prospective analysis

This study implemented a prospective design to explore college women's perceived risk to experience sexual victimization over a 2-month interim (N = 143). Compared to women without such histories, women with a history of unwanted sexual contact via arguments/ pressure, or a history of unwanted sexual intercourse via administration of alcohol/drugs reported higher perceived risk to subsequently experience these forms of victimization. Compared to women who were not victimized, women who subsequently experienced unwanted sexual intercourse via administration of alcohol/drugs or arguments/pressure reported higher levels of risk to experience these forms of victimization. Controlling for victimization history, higher levels of risk to experience sexual intercourse over the interim via arguments predicted this form of victimization over the follow-up. Implications are discussed.     

Assessing the efficacy of the protective action-completion nexus for sexual victimizations

Research has shown that protective actions are often used by rape victims, and some actions, namely, forceful physical resistance, are more effective in preventing a completed rape than other types of actions, such as nonforceful verbal resistance. The research is less clear, however, on the extent to which women who are victims of nonrape sexual victimization use protective measures and on the effectiveness of these actions. There is also uncertainty on the nature of the relationship between different types of protective actions, contextual characteristics, and the likelihood of completion of nonrape sexual victimization incidents. To investigate these issues, we used data from a national-level study of 4,446 female college students. Our results indicate that the use of protective action varied across type of sexual victimization and that the effectiveness of these actions on reducing the risk of a completed act is differentially related to type of sexual victimization. The findings suggest the need for sexual victimization prevention and education programs to include information regarding the efficacy of protective actions in both rape and nonrape incidents.     

Combining Primary Prevention and Risk Reduction Approaches in Sexual Assault Protection Programming

Abstract

Objective: The object of this study is to extend prior evaluations of Elemental, a sexual assault protection program that combines primary prevention and risk reduction strategies within a single program. Participants and Methods: During 2012 and 2013, program group and control group students completed pretest, posttest, and 6-week and 6-month follow-up surveys assessing sexual attitudes and knowledge as well as experiences with assault. Results: The results reinforce previous findings that Elemental is effective in reducing sexual assault risk. Program effects were both direct, in that participation was associated with lower risk of assault, and mediated, in that participation impacted attitudes and beliefs that are empirically linked to risk of later assault. Conclusions: By combining both primary prevention and risk reduction approaches, Elemental is not only effective at reducing incidences of assault, it is also consistent with a number of recent recommendations for directions in sexual assault prevention programming.     

Understanding the relationship between alcohol and sex: Latino and white college students and problematic sexual experiences while drinking

OBJECTIVES: The authors examined whether the relationship between alcohol expectancies and sexual experiences while drinking differed between Latino and white college students. PARTICIPANTS: The authors considered students if they were white or Latino, unmarried, aged 18-25 years, reported any drinking, and had at least 1 sexual partner in the present school year. METHODS: The investigators collected surveys from a random sample of 13,868 undergraduate students from the 14 California public university campuses. They used tests of group differences and hierarchical multiple regressions. RESULTS: Social-facilitation alcohol expectancies were associated with the total number of different alcohol-related sexual experiences among Latino students. Neither social facilitation nor sexual-enhancement alcohol expectancies were differentially predictive of white or Latino students' frequency of sexual experiences. CONCLUSIONS: Additional research is necessary to determine whether concepts targeted by alcohol prevention programs operate in a differential manner for Latino students.     

An analysis of the sexual health and safety information study abroad directors present their students prior to departure

Abstract

Objective: Study abroad students engage in problematic alcohol use, risky sexual activity, and maintain high risk for sexual assault; however, there is a lack of information about relevant prevention practices in study abroad programs. The purpose of this project was to understand the health and safety behaviors (HSBs) discussed with students prior to departure. Method: A total of 143 study abroad program directors from the U.S. completed an online survey, including demographics of the program director and institution, and questions about the HSBs discussed with students. Results: Chi-square analyses revealed that discussions of HSBs rarely differed by institution size or location; however, all HSBs were more likely to be discussed by directors administering programs with higher enrollment. Conclusion: Study abroad directors provide some basic information on sexual health to their students; however, more work is needed to ensure students are informed and attending to information about potential health risks prior to traveling abroad.     

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among College Student Victims of Acquaintance Assault

Summary

Post-traumatic stress disorder symptomatology was evaluated among 316 college women who reported coercive sexual experiences. History of victimization, attributions of blame, and current symptoms were assessed. Acquaintance assault victims reported significantly higher levels of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms than non-victims, and one-third exceeded criteria for clinical levels of distress. Situational variables, including the type of assault, were not associated with PTSD status or symptoms. Cognitive appraisals, however,'were significantly associated with PTSD symptomatology. Attributions of blame were all associated with PTSD status, with characterological self-blame also being associated with level of current symptomatology. The results document the negative psychological consequences of acquaintance assaults among college students and help to focus the efforts of treatment programs for acquaintance assault victims. In addition, the results highlight the importance of cognitive appraisals in mediating effects of sexual victimization.     

Problematic alcohol use and sexting as risk factors for sexual assault among college women

ABSTRACT

Sexual assault is a major public health concern and college women are four times more likely to experience sexual assault than any other group. We investigated whether sexting is a mechanism by which alcohol use increases risk for college women to be targeted for sexual assault. We hypothesized that sexting would mediate the relationship between problem drinking and sexual assault, such that drinking (T1 = beginning fall semester) would contribute to increased sexting (T2 = end fall semester), and in turn increase the risk of being targeted for sexual assault (T3 = end spring semester). Results: Among 332 undergraduate women (M(SD)age = 19.15(1.69), 76.9% Caucasian), sexting (T2) predicted sexual assault (T3; b = 3.98, p = .05), controlling for baseline sexual assault (b = 0.82, p < .01). Further, sexting (T2) mediated the relationship between problem drinking (T1) and sexual assault (T3) (b = 0.04, CI[.004,.12]). Conclusion: Findings suggest that sexting is one mechanism through which drinking increases the risk of college women being targeted for sexual assault.     

The understudied half of undergraduates: Risky sexual behaviors among community college students

Abstract

Objective: This study examines the prevalence and risk factors associated with risky sexual behaviors in community college students. Participants: A diverse sample of 18–19-year-old community college students (N?=?264). Methods: Baseline data from an online prevention program administered in 2015. Results: Community college students in this sample disproportionately experienced sexual assault and were unlikely to test for STIs. Higher intentions to engage in risky sexual behaviors were associated with gender and sexual experience, but also with having lower intentions to communicate with a sexual partner about pregnancy and STIs, and having higher gender norm endorsement. Conclusions: Older adolescents attending community colleges may be at high risk for poor sexual health outcomes, and appropriate theory-based education should be tailored to meet the needs of these underserved students.     

Unplanned sexual activity as a consequence of alcohol use: a prospective study of risk perceptions and alcohol use among college freshmen

OBJECTIVE: The authors' goal was to show how risk perceptions regarding unplanned sexual activity following alcohol use are prospectively related to subsequent alcohol consumption. PARTICIPANTS: Undergraduate students (N = 380) completed questionnaires at 2 time points during their freshman year. METHODS: In the middle of the academic year (T1), students estimated their risk of engaging in unplanned sex and reported their alcohol use during the previous term. Four months later (T2), they again reported alcohol use and indicated whether they had engaged in unplanned sex since T1. RESULTS: Students who consumed more alcohol at T1 rated their risk of unplanned sex more highly, suggesting relative accuracy. Those with higher risk perceptions consumed more alcohol at T2 (controlling for T1 use), suggesting that they maintained the high-risk behavior. Last, those who were unrealistically optimistic (ie, estimated low risk at T1 yet had unplanned sex by T2) reported greater alcohol use at T2. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the role that risk perceptions regarding sexual activity may play in college students' alcohol use.     

A content analysis of sexual health and substance use information presented on study abroad websites: Findings and recommendations

Abstract

Objective: Despite study abroad students frequently engaging in risky behaviors, there is a dearth of research exploring prevention efforts taken by study abroad programs. The goal of this project was to examine information presented on study abroad program websites regarding sexual assault, alcohol use, drug use, and risky sexual behavior. Participants: A total of 753 universities in the US were selected from the Carnegie Classification of Institutes database. Method: Coders evaluated the website of each institution’s study abroad program for the presence of information about the four factors of interest. Results: Sixty-seven percent of the websites provided no information on any of these risk behaviors. Chi-square analyses revealed institutional demographic differences in the presentation of prevention information. We also identified three emerging themes about avenues for modifying website content. Conclusion: Study abroad programs can provide more detail and action oriented information on their websites for students.