How Runaway and Homeless Youth Navigate Troubled Waters: The Role of Formal and Informal Helpers

Most adolescents navigate the transition from adolescence to young adulthood with relative success. However, runaway and homeless youth experience formidable obstacles in their paths and engage in dangerous behaviors that threaten their well being and long-term prospects. This study is part of a larger exploratory research effort aimed at understanding how runaway and homeless adolescents navigate the troubled waters of their adolescence to make successful developmental transitions into young adulthood. The focus of this paper is to report findings related to the formal and informal helping resources that enable runaway and homeless youth to resolve difficulties, deal with hazards, and achieve some level of self-defined success in young adulthood. This study utilized a qualitative research design, and the primary data collection method was in-depth interviews with 12 formerly runaway and homeless young people. The constant comparative method was used to analyze the data. Evidence emerged regarding who provided help, the types of help provided, conditions that facilitated acceptance of help, and advice to helping professionals. The findings illustrate the experiences youth had with helpers that they found valuable and experiences they perceived as detrimental.     

Adolescents' and Parents' Perceptions of Runaway Behavior: Problems and Solutions

This exploratory study examined runaway adolescents' and parents' perceptions about youth and family life and explored reasons youth run away and what could be done that would help them remain home. Comparisons between adolescents' and parents' reports of family functioning demonstrated significant discrepancies. Few parents assumed any responsibility for the runaway behavior or change efforts. More adolescents blamed themselves or cited difficulties in parent–child relationships and offered ideas that entailed altering their attitudes and behaviors or family relationships. The implications of the findings for interventions and future research efforts are explored.     

Mental Disorders,Comorbidity, and Postrunaway Arrests Among Homeless and Runaway Adolescents

This study examined the associations between lifetime mental disorder, comorbidity, and self‐reported postrunaway arrests among 428 (187 males, 241 females) homeless and runaway youth. The analysis examined the pattern of arrests across five lifetime mental disorders (alcohol abuse, drug abuse, conduct disorder, major depressive episode, and posttraumatic stress disorder). The adolescents, ranging from 16 to 19 years old, were interviewed directly on the streets and in shelters in four Midwestern states using computer‐assisted personal interviewing. Extensive self‐reports of early life history, behaviors since running away from home, and diagnostic interviewing (UM‐CIDI and DISC‐R) were used to estimate possible disorders. There was a high level of postrunaway arrests reported by the youth; more than half were arrested at least once after the initial runaway, with the average of 4.4 times. Consistent with the hypotheses, there were differential associations between individual mental disorders and involvement with the criminal justice system. Only externalizing disorders such as substance abuse and conduct disorder were related to arrest. Street youth with multiple externalizing and internalizing disorders were more likely to be arrested than nondisordered youths.     

Chapter 10: Issues in HIV/AIDS Service Delivery to High Risk Youth

Homeless and runaway youth engage in behavior that puts them at risk for infection with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS. Prevalence of HIV disease in homeless and runaway youth is higher than it is among other adolescents. In addition, homeless and runaway youth are often forced to engage in sex as a means of survival. Although they engage in high risk behavior, AIDS education programs have neglected them as a target group for education. To some extent, they have been included in other more general categories of persons with AIDS risk behaviors, such as men who have sex with men or intravenous drug users. However, the number of adolescents receiving age-specific HIV/AIDS information is far below the number infected (Hein et al., 1992). Often high risk youth are disenfranchised, having been forced from home by their families after disclosing their gay or lesbian identities. Lacking a political voice and having no spokesperson, they represent a group with complex unmet needs. These youth typically have immediate needs for food, shelter, and clothing. In addition, they often need medical management, mental health and drug counseling, crisis management, and HIV/AIDS information. These needs are often overwhelming to the agencies that serve youth. This article examines the barriers and issues that exist in providing services to high risk youth. Then, suggsetions for removing those barriers by empowering both service providers and youth are offered. Some of the suggestions are based upon the authors' own experience in providing HIV/AIDS in-service training to service providers to high risk youth. The article makes recommendations for policy on youth and HIV/AIDS.     

Spirituality and Religion in the Lives of Runaway and Homeless Youth

Abstract

This qualitative study, part of a larger study of resiliency, explores the impact of spirituality on runaway and/or homeless youth. Interviews with 19 former runaway and homeless youth were analyzed to explore their experience of spirituality as they coped with the adversity in their lives. Five themes related to spirituality emerged: a belief in divine intervention; having a personal relationship with a nonjudgmental higher power; use of prayer; participation in traditional and nontraditional religious practices; and finding meaning and purpose in life, including a desire to “give back” to their community. Implications for social work practice and research are addressed.     

A comparison of drug involvement between runaways and school youths

Problems related to homeless/runaway youths have received increased attention in recent years. Homeless/runaway youths manifest many problems in addition to being absent from home and without supervision of a parent or guardian. The purpose of the study was to determine drug use and abuse patterns of homeless/runaway youths and to compare those patterns, along with attitudes toward selected illicit behaviors, with similar data collected from adolescents in school. Data were collected from persons (n = 253) in homeless/runaway shelters in the southeast United States. Comparisons made with data from other studies of runaways and of youths in school indicate that drug use and abuse is two-three times more prevalent for runaways than with the school youths. Runaways' attitudes toward selected illicit behaviors are more tolerant than those of school youths. Intervention programs for runaway/homeless youths should reflect an understanding of the complexity of the psycho-social and behavioral history of the clients which is much different than that of those who are in school.     

Self‐Mutilation and Homeless Youth: The Role of Family Abuse,Street Experiences,and Mental Disorders

Self‐mutilation, which is the act of deliberately harming oneself, has been overlooked in studies of homeless and runaway youth. Given their high rates of abuse and mental health disorders, which are associated with self‐mutilation, homeless and runaway youth provide an ideal sample in which to investigate factors associated with self‐mutilation among a nonclinical population. Based on interviews with 428 homeless and runaway youth aged 16 to 19 years in 4 Midwestern states, the current study revealed widespread prevalence of self‐mutilation among these young people. Multivariate analyses indicated that sexual abuse, ever having stayed on the street, deviant subsistence strategies, and meeting diagnostic criteria for depression were positively associated with self‐mutilation. The findings are interpreted using stress theory and affect‐regulation models.     

Substance Use, Self-Esteem, and Self-Efficacy Among Homeless and Runaway Youth in New Orleans

Each year, nearly 1.7 million children and adolescents in the US run away or are forced out by their caregivers. Although several studies have examined numerous risk and protective factors among homeless and runaway youth (HRY), little is known about this population’s self-efficacy. This cross-sectional study investigates substance use, self-esteem, and self-efficacy in 51 HRY in New Orleans. Results include high rates of substance use disorders, lower self-esteem and self-efficacy compared with that of non-HRY in previous studies, and no significant correlation between substance use and self-esteem or self-efficacy. The authors interpret these findings and discuss their implications for practice and future research.     

Adverse Life Experiences and Homelessness Among Adolescents: an examination of the conditions for convergence

Abstract

There are two factors that limit our knowledge of the risk factors associated with homelessness among runaway adolescents, namely (1) the samples used are often composed of youth homeless service users and/or youths living on the streets (visible homelessness), whereas most adolescents in fact use “private” resources (hidden homelessness), and (2) failure to use an adequate control group to identify risk factors associated specifically with homelessness. Our study compares the characteristics of two groups of youths under the supervision oftheyouth protection system, according to the presence or absence of periods of homelessness. The results throw light on the factors underlying the shiftfrom “at risk” to “homeless”, showing that youths with experience of homelessness are more likely to have been placed in substitute home environments, have experienced significant relationship difficulties with one of their parents (deterioration ofthe parent/youth relationship and parental abuse) and to have been diagnosed with behavioral disorders. The findings suggest that the decision to place young people under supervision is based more on the dynamic between risk factors rather than on the existence of behavioral problems.     

The effects of a high-risk environment on the sexual victimization of homeless and runaway youth

Based on the structural-choice theory of victimization, the current study examines the effects of a high-risk environment on the sexual victimization of 311 homeless and runaway youth. Results from logistic regression revealed that survival sex, gender, and physical appearance were significantly associated with sexual victimization. Results from a series of interactions also revealed that the effects of deviant behaviors on sexual victimization varied by gender and age. Although males and females engaged in similar activities, young women were more likely to be victims of sexual assault. These findings suggest that engaging in high-risk behaviors predispose some people to greater risks but it is the combination of these behaviors with gender and/or age that determines who will become victimized.     

Exploring the Relationship Between Homelessness and Delinquency: A Snapshot of a Group of Homeless Youth in San Jose, California

This paper reports the findings of an exploratory study examining the relationship between homelessness and delinquency in adolescents. Researchers collected data from interviews of 42 homeless youth contacted through a drop-in center in San Jose, California. Participants responded to a structured interview as well as two vignettes describing situations in which crimes were committed. The most striking findings are that (1) reported rates of delinquency are higher than expected based on past research, and (2) despite the high rates of delinquency, answers to a “three wishes” question describe wishes and ideals that are largely consistent with mainstream societal values. This paper provides a survey of existing research on homeless youth and delinquency, a comparison of our findings to those of previous studies, and two detailed case studies that highlight the patterns we observed in the broader survey.     

Family Functioning and Predictors of Runaway Behavior Among At-Risk Youth

Adolescent runaway behavior is associated with a host of negative outcomes in young adulthood. Therefore, it is important to understand the factors that predict running away in youth. Longitudinal data from 111 at-risk families were used to identify proximal predictors of runaway behavior over a 12-week period. On average, youth were 14.96 years old, and 45 % were female. Ten percent of youth ran away during the 12-week follow-up period. In bivariate analyses, running away was predicted by poorer youth- and parent-rated family functioning, past runaway behavior, and other problem behaviors (e.g., substance use, delinquency), but not poorer perceived academic functioning. Results of a hierarchical logistic regression revealed a relationship between youth-rated family functioning and runaway behavior. However, this effect became non-significant after accounting for past runaway behavior and other problem behaviors, both of which remained significant predictors in the multivariable model. These findings suggest that youth who run away may be engaged in a more pervasive pattern of problematic behavior, and that screening and prevention programs need to address the cycle of adolescent defiant behavior associated with running away. Recommendations for clinical practice with this at-risk population are discussed.     

Readiness for independent living of adolescents in youth villages in Israel

Most Israeli children who spend their youth away from their birth parents live in youth villages. The majority of these children come from either the geographical or social periphery of Israel. Since the 1990s the youth villages have specialized in absorbing immigrants mainly from the former Soviet Union (FSU) and Ethiopia. The paper reports on a survey conducted among the professional staff in the youth villages. This study explores their perceptions of the readiness for independent living of adolescents on the verge of leaving youth villages and examines how readiness is associated with individual and familial characteristics. A structured questionnaire was mailed to youth villages asking professionals to anonymously complete the survey. The total sample include reports on 1256 adolescents who spent in the current setting on average 3.3 (SD = 1.8) years. For many of them this was the first out-of-home placement. Generally, workers have a favorable assessment of the youths' readiness for independent living. Still, they report that many of the youths do not have any of the necessary skills for independent living. Additionally, there are sub-groups that are more disadvantaged and at greater risk because they lack skills for a successful transition from care. The findings indicate that youth of Ethiopian origin are more disadvantaged with regard to skills related to school, the job market, finances, interpersonal relationships and normative behaviors, whereas youths from FSU present fewer skills pertaining to military service. The findings emphasize the important role Israeli youth villages have in supporting underprivileged adolescents in acquiring basic skills for adult life and suggest guidelines as to which sub-groups and in which area programs should be developed.     

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual homeless youth: an eight-city public health perspective

This article reports on results of a one-day public health survey conducted in six states by homeless youth providers to measure and compare risk factors between lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) homeless youth and non-LGB homeless youth. This article intends to inform the child welfare field on existing gaps in services and areas where more training and technical support is necessary in providing services to homeless LGB youth. The findings point to substantial differences within the homeless youth sample and demonstrate that in addition to the public health risks young people face merely by being homeless, the risks are exacerbated for those who self-identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual. The article informs child welfare providers and policymakers about the substantial vulnerability of LGB youth beyond that of non-LGB homeless youth and the need to fund programming, training, technical assistance and further research to specifically respond to the complex needs of this population.     

The Social Construction of Deviant Behavior in Homeless and Runaway Youth: Implications for Practice

This study examined the social construction of deviance in a sample of homeless and/or runaway youth in metropolitan Phoenix. In depth semi-structured interviews with 14 youth were conducted, and the data were transcribed and analyzed using a qualitative research computer program. The findings from the study point to an emerging theory, which suggests that ambiguous local policies relevant to homeless youth (e.g., trespassing, loitering) resulted in their selective enforcement by local security and police. Respondents described the ways that they adapted their behaviors to the environmental stressors resulting from these policies. Implications for practice are discussed.

Bullying and Victimization: The Role of Conduct Problems and Psychopathic Traits

Bullying and victimization occurring in adolescence can have a long‐lasting negative impact into adulthood. This study investigates whether conduct problems (CP) and dimensions of psychopathy predict the developmental course of bullying and victimization from ages 12 to 14 among 1,416 Greek‐Cypriot adolescents. Results indicate that initial levels of bullying were highest among adolescents scoring high on narcissism, impulsivity, or CP—particularly for those also showing high callous‐unemotional (CU) traits. Bullying behaviors were also more stable among youth scoring high on narcissism. Further, youth high on impulsivity showed more stable victimization by peers across development. Importantly, adolescents high on CP+CU were at greater risk for engaging in bullying across development compared with those scoring lower on CU traits or CP.     

Hazards of stigma: the sexual and physical abuse of gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents in the United States and Canada

Some studies suggest lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) teens are at higher risk than peers for violence at home, in school, and in the community. That can bring them into the child welfare system or services for runaway and homeless teens. This study compared self-reported experiences of sexual and physical abuse based on sexual orientation and gender in seven population-based surveys of youth. The authors used c2 and age-adjusted odds of abuse to compare bisexual to heterosexual, mostly heterosexual, and gay and lesbian students. They also provide case studies to illustrate the experiences of such youth.