Service Users and Practitioners Reunited: The Key Component for Social Work Reform

Correspondence to Professor Peter Beresford, Centre for Citizen Participation, Brunel University, Osterley Campus, Borough Road, Osterley, Middlesex, TW7 5DU, UK. E-mail: peter.beresford{at}brunel.ac.uk or Suzy Croft, Senior Social Worker, St John's Hospice, 60 Grove End Road, London, NW8 9NH, UK. E-mail: suzy.croft{at}hje.org.uk Summary This article explores the pressures towards both regulatoryand liberatory social work. It identifies a range of factorsoperating to push social work in each direction. It discussesthe key significance for more liberatory social work of theroles and engagement of social work practitioners and serviceusers. Highlighting four key characteristics in the currentpolitical and policy context of social work: ambiguity, uncertainty,complexity and contradiction, it argues that social work isunlikely to develop a more emancipatory role, unless socialwork practitioners gain more support to play a central rolein its construction and develop much closer links and allianceswith service users and their organizations and movements.     

Keeping Social Work Honest: Evaluating as Profession and Practice

Correspondence to Ian Shaw, School of Social and Administrative Studies, University of Wales Cardiff, 50 Park Place, Cardiff CF1 3AT Summary The central argument of this paper is that social work needsa radical alternative to existing options for evaluating practice.Social workers at present are offered three choices. They areinvited to choose between applying research, conducting researchor adopting specific forms of empirical research-based practice(for example Everitt et al., 1992; Thyer. 1993; Fuller and Petch,1995). We touch briefly on reasons why we believe none of these optionsprovides an adequate grounding for social work, referring especiallyto the growing call for social work to find new purpose throughan empirical, research-based practice. If alternative approachesare to be persuasive, they must be fashioned from the materialsof a new approach to research on social work practice—‘one that is exploratory rather than confirmatory, buildinga model of evaluation from the practitioners' own accounts ratherthan superimposing an ideal model’ (Elks and Kirkhart,1993, p. 555). The major part of this paper is taken up withevidence from research of this kind. The model of evaluatingin practice with which we conclude the paper is simultaneouslytrue to social workers' accounts of their practice, while offeringa critical starting point for evaluating and refashioning thatpractice.     

Beyond Retroduction? -- Hermeneutics, Reflexivity and Social Work Practice

Correspondence to Susan White, University of Manchester, Department of Social Policy and Social Work, Williamson Building, Oxford Road, Manchester Summary Over the last three decades qualitative research methodologieshave been in the ascent within social science. Yet social workevaluation studies have tended to be quantitative in nature,conventially relying upon the generation of criteria againstwhich interventions are retrospectively judged. The generationof such criteria inevitably depends upon pre-suppositions, whichin themselves go unresearched. As a consequence the .sense makingactivities on which social work interventions depend are renderedimmune from critical analysis. This reflects a broader tendencyfor social work to cling to naive realist epistemologies, whichare arguably obsolete within the interpretive paradigm in whichits activity is properly located. By examining the debates withininterpretive social science, this paper argues for an approachto social work assessment which avoids the pitfalls of naiveobjectivism and the nihilism of anarchic relativism, whilstretaining creativity, imagination and hope.     

'Low Key Practices' in Social Work. Towards a Socio-historical Method

Summary In this article a ‘socio-historical’ method of analysisand intervention in social work will be developed, illustratedby an example drawn from social work with families, the programknown in France as Action Educative en Milieu Ouvert. Our purposeis to support and encourage what we call ‘low key practices’,which refers to practices in which social workers within theexisting structures of so-called ‘individual social work’attempt to explain the social struggle taking place in the situationsthey are dealing with.     

Professional Ideologies and Preferences in Social Work: A British Study in Global Perspective

This paper comes at a time when the social work profession inthe UK is redefining its professional ideology and working practicesin the face of key government initiatives for social work educationand the regulation of practice. It seeks to contextualize and,thereby, inform these deliberations by providing a cross-nationalperspective. Indeed, the search for international perspectivesthat might advise or validate national perspectives on socialwork has become increasingly important (Midgley, 2001). Thepaper uses data from a global study (Weiss et al., forthcoming)that identifies and compares the attitudes of graduating socialworkers at the point of qualification in ten countries representinga diverse range of social, economic and cultural contexts (n= 781). Through a comparison of commonalities and differencesof professional ideologies and practice preferences across samples,the paper distinguishes particular characteristics of the socialwork profession in the UK. Whilst a claim cannot be made tobe representative, the findings present a set of empiricallybased contentions that provide information about what socialworkers are being trained for and what they prefer to do. Findingsreveal a mix of psycho-social orientation, whereby a welfareagenda was preferred—one that co-existed with the espousalof elements of a statutory social work role in terms of ideology,level of practice, choice of technologies, age and populationgroupings and practice strategies. Whilst such a mix appearedcontradictory in conceptual terms, the students appeared toreconcile the dilemma through the espousal of a particular valueposition. A key finding for policy makers and educators, however,concerns the fact that while the UK students felt willing towork through social problems in individual situations, theywere unhappy about the extent to which they were able to utilizetheir therapeutic skills in statutory social work settings.Their preference would be to work in the independent sector.     

Beyond Social Constructionism: Critical Realism and Social Work

Summary Theories within the social and psychological sciences continueto shape social work practice. However, recent debates withinthese sciences on the shortcomings of ‘social constructionism’,and the attempt to overcome them through a critical realistposition, have so far failed to capture social work's attention.This paper provides a critical overview of these theoreticaldebates, highlighting the shortcomings of social constructionismfor social work. The critical realist challenge to social constructionism,as articulated by the British philosopher Roy Bhaskar, is consideredand its relevance to social work formulated in terms of a returnto ‘depth’ in practice.     

The Reprofessionalization of Social Work: Collaborative Approaches for Achieving Professional Recognition

Correspondence to Dr Karen Healy, School of Social Work and Applied Human Sciences, Education Building, Level 7, The University of Sydney, Australia. E-mail: k.healy{at}social. uq.edu.au or Dr Gabrielle Meagher, Political Economy, School of Economics and Political Science, The University of Sydney, Australia. E-mail: G.Meagher{at}econ.usyd.edu.au Summary Contemporary practice theories assume that social workers havethe capacity to enact their work as a thoughtful, analytic andcreative activity, and that these capacities are, or shouldbe, recognized and supported in human services organizations.However, emerging evidence from the front line of social servicespractice suggests that, despite public policy rhetoric emphasizingservice quality, the practice environment is characterized bya lack of support for, if not outright hostility towards, professionalsocial work. In this paper we will consider how the social workprofession can collectively improve the recognition of theirwork as professional activity. We discuss the deprofessionalizationof social services work and analyse collaborative strategiesfor achieving recognition, specifically the formation of professionalassociations and trade unions. We will focus our discussionon emerging convergences between new professionalism and thenew political unionism. Finally, we consider how these new developmentscan enhance the industrial and cultural recognition of humanservices work.     

At the Edge of the Frame: Beyond Science and Art in Social Work

Correspondence to Dean Emilia E. Martinez-B raw ley. School of Social Work, Arizona State University, PO Box 871802, Tempe, Arizona 85287–1802, USA. Summary The central argument in this article is that social work hasalways been a practice at the fringes. The phrase is used inits best sense and in at least two meanings: (1) that socialwork has been at the edges of the mainstream of scientific discourse,not because of any intrinsic deficiency in the profession butbecause of the nature of the practice; (2) that, in the postmodernsense, social work has been a collage where science, art, rationalityand intuition, systematic and asystematic knowledge meet. Inthis latter sense, this article proposes, social work can representa very desirable convergence of paradigms that needs to be acknowledgedand celebrated. Perhaps the most significant contribution ofpostmodernism is that it accommodates this possibility.     

Reading Social Work Competing Discourses in the Rules and Requirements for the Diploma in Social Work

Correspondence to Dr Beth Humphnes, Department of Applied Community Studies, Manchester Metropolitan University, 799 Wilmslow Road, Manchester M20 2RR Summary The changes which have taken place across all of social workeducation and practice in Britain introduce a new phase forthe profession in line with wider political and economic changesin the UK. The Rules and Requirements for the Diploma in SocialWork exemplify these changes, and the document containing themis a useful focus for an analysis of what is at stake. Thisarticle employs discourse analysis to examine the ideologicalfunctions of the Dip.S.W. regulations and their relationshipto wider social discourses, having in mind both the discipliningrole of discourse and its possibilities for transformation.It identifies a dominant regulatory discourse, and an oppositionalliberatory discourse which are in dialogue with each other andwith related discourses. The article considers the constructionof social work in the document in its surveillance, managerialist,competence-based functions. The analysis also looks for contradictoryvoices in these discourses and in CCETSW'. Welsh Language Policyand Equal Opportunities Statement, which might offer sites ofresistance and refusal. It is argued that the shape of the stagesocial work has entered into is not inevitable, and the destabilizingpotential of such an analysis creates a space for the imaginationof alternatives.     

Reflexive Modernity and Social Work in Ireland: A Response to Powell

Summary The aim of this article is respond to some of the issues addressedby Powell (1998). It focuses on his consideration of the roleand task of social work within a changing society. I argue that,before postulations about the future role of social work inIreland can be made, consideration of its current nature andthe form of its discourses are necessary. I then go on to critiquePowell's analysis of social work in the context of conceptssuch as empowerment, participation and prevention and arguethat, by failing to consider the necessarily regulatory andcentralized nature of much of Irish social work currently, suchan analysis remains merely rhetorical. Powell's reference tothe Irish Association of Social Workers' Code of Ethics (1995)as evidence of social work entering a period of reflexive modernityis also examined. The article concludes with a call for a moveaway from utopian speculation within Irish social work discoursetowards a more realistic and constructive analysis of both thefuture potential and the limitations of Irish social work, givenits spatial and discursive constraints.     

The Social Work Task in an Acute Psychiatric In-Patient Unit

Summary This paper reports the results of monitoring all admissionsfrom a prescribed geographical area to an acute psychiatricin-patient unit for a six month period. Members of the hospitalsocial work department assessed all admissions and selectedapproximately one-half of these for high social work input Demographicdata for the whole subject group is examined and compared tothe high input group. The case review system outlined by Goldbergand Fruin (1976) is used to describe the clients' social problemson admission, as well as the social work task, in terms of practicalservices and other social worker activities. These findingsare compared to those of Goldberg et al. (1977) who examinedthe social work task in an area office social services departmentintake team. Despite differences in demographic profiles ofthe two groups and consequently differing social problems, thesocial work task in both settings was found to be similar. Inboth studies 53% of clients were offered some practical (althoughdifferent service) and the most common social work activitieswere found to be assessment, information and advice, and mobilizingresources.     

Social Work, Social Science and Practice Wisdom

Correspondence to Michael Sheppard, Department of Applied Social Science, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA. Summary Social work has for some time had an ambiguous and ambivalentrelationship with its social science knowledge base. However,this has arisen, at least in part, because of the emphasis onthe outcome or product of social science rather than the processby which research is conducted. This paper, focusing on assessment,argues that an emphasis on process goes some way to closingthe gap between social science and social work, that the methodsused by social researchers are, in many respects, simply refinementsof the methodology of everyday life, and that social workers,when conducting assessments operate rather like practical qualitativeresearchers. Using Analytical Induction as an heuristic device,it proceeds to explore critical characteristics of good practicein social work assessments. It concludes that practice shouldbe characterized by critical awareness, involving imaginativedevelopment of alternative hypotheses, a sceptical attitudetowards case assessments and a principle of adopting hypothesesleast likely to be in error.     

Hidden Gems: Systematically Searching Electronic Databases for Research Publications for Social Work and Social Care

Correspondence to Brian Taylor, Queen's University Belfast, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Mulhouse Building, Royal Victoria Hospital, Grosvenor Road, Belfast BT12 6BJ, Northern Ireland. E-mail: b.j.taylor{at}qub.ac.uk Summary Context: Electronic bibliographic databases are an importantsource for professional publications about social work and communitycare more generally. This article describes and evaluates amethod of identifying relevant articles as part of a systematicreview of research evidence. Decision making about institutionaland home care services for older people is used as an example.Method: Four databases (Social Science Citation Index, Medline,CINAHL and Caredata), which abstract publications relevant tohealth and social services, were searched systematically toidentify relevant research studies. The items retrieved wereappraised independently using a standard form developed forthe purpose. The searches were compared in terms of sensitivity,precision, overlap between databases and inter-rater reliability.Results: The search retrieved 525 articles, of which 276 wererelevant. The four databases retrieved 55 per cent, 41 per cent,19 per cent and 1 per cent of the relevant articles respectively,achieving these sensitivities with precision levels of 54 percent, 48 per cent, 84 per cent and 94 per cent. The databasesretrieved 116, 73, 24 and 15 unique relevant articles respectively,showing the need to use a range of databases. Discussion: Ageneral approach to creating a search to retrieve relevant researchhas been developed. The development of an international, indexeddatabase dedicated to literature relevant to social servicesis a priority to enable progress in evidence-based policy andpractice in social work. Editors and researchers should considerusing structured abstracts in order to improve the retrievaland dissemination of research.     

An Unacceptable Role for Social Work: Implementing Immigration Policy

Correspondence to Dr Beth Humphries, Department of Applied Social Science, Lancaster University, Cartmel College, Lancaster, LA1 4YL. E-mail: b.humphries{at}lancaster.ac.uk Summary Social work has always had a role in policing the boundariesof welfare, and under New Labour there has been a decisive shiftto an increasingly narrow and negative practice. This articletakes social work’s involvement in internal immigrationcontrols as an example of the profession’s complicityin implementing social policies that are degrading and inhuman.It argues that social work has adopted a reactionary and uncriticalview of policy, and asks whether there might be a more progressivefuture for the profession.     

Reflection as Dialogue

Much attention has been given to the use of reflection in socialwork practice and education. The literature shows that reflectivedialogue can take place individually or in small groups. Inthis paper, the concept of dialogue is examined further at theinternal and external levels by referring to the works of Bakhtinand other related scholars. Two other concepts, phronesis byAristotle and kairos by Isocrates, are used to provide furtherinsights into understanding such processes. The relevance ofinternal and external dialogue to social work practice and educationis discussed. The integrated use of internal and external dialoguefacilitates a shift among different perspectives and bringsinto awareness the multiple voices of different parties. Sucha broadened view can limit the misuse of professional authorityand enable the social worker to give fuller expression to coresocial values such as respect, justice and equality.     

'Problematics of Government', (Post) Modernity and Social Work

Correspondence to Nigel Parton, Professor in Child Care Studies, The University of Keele, Keele. Staffordshire ST5 5BG. Summary This paper attempts to locate contemporary developments andtensions in social work within current debates in social theoryconcerning the problematics of government and (post) modernity.It argues that modern social work emerged in a period of ‘welfarism’which has now passed and that as a consequence social work hasnot simply been restructured in the era of neo-liberalism butis exposed as an activity particularly concerned with managingfamily life via the exercising of moral judgements and negotiatingresponsibilities. As a consequence the essential ambiguitiesof social work are more self evident than previously, and ratherthan constituting problems to be overcome, articulate the centralelements of what it is to do social work. The article concludesby, tentatively, outlining the implications of such an analysisand how it may help us to understand what is going on and howwe might proceed.     

Medicalization of Social Workers in Mental Health Services in Hong Kong

Correspondence to Dr Kam-shing Yip, Associate Professor, Department of Applied Social Studies, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong. E-mail: ssksyip{at}polyu.edu.hk Summary Medical dominance is a crucial problem in social work practicein mental health services. This paper is an examination of theresponse of social workers to medical dominance in mental healthservices in Hong Kong. To explore the process and the effectsof medicalization of social workers, sixty-three social workersin various areas of mental health service settings were interviewed.Their reaction and daily performance in facing medical dominancewere analysed and evaluated. The findings show that facing medicaldominance was a common occurrence for social workers in variousmental health services in Hong Kong. Conflict existed betweenthe rationalization of medical knowledge by medical professionals,and social work rationalization of social work knowledge bysocial workers. The process of medicalization consisted of fivestages: ignorance of medical dominance, confronting medicaldominance, compromise with medical dominance, acceptance ofmedical dominance and internalization of medical dominance.The findings also show that medicalization was influenced bythe organizational and team context.     

Is Gender Inequality in Social Work Management Relevant to Social Work Students?

Correspondence to Ms C. Taylor, Research Fellow, Social Work Research Centre, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA. Summary This paper reports on a study carried out in 1991 based on questionnaireswhich asked 169 female and male social work students about theiraspirations and expectations in respect of promotion in theirfuture career. Underlying the study is a concern about the unequalrepresentation of male and female workers at management levelsin social services in the UK, there being at present a predominanceof male managers. The phenomenon is not regarded as unique tosocial services, but as part of the pattern of gender inequalityin the workforce as a whole. The view that women contribute to the phenomenon by a fundamentallack of interest in, or unwillingness to apply for, promotionwill be challenged. It will be argued that the differences inthe aspirations and expectations of male and female employees,which previous research studies have reported, may be an effectof the experience of the organization rather than a cause ofthe scarcity of female employees in promoted posts. The paper will focus on some of the findings, including students'aspirations and expectations, their opinions about the unequalrepresentation of men and women in social work management, theimplications of this for their own career and whether they considerthis issue is, or should be, a significant component of socialwork training.     

Probation and Social Work

The paper considers the representation of probation themes inthe British Journal of Social Work (BJSW) since the early 1990s,and reviews developments in probation policy and practice sincethen, with a focus on the relationship between probation practiceand social work. It argues that emerging research evidence supportsthe view that effective probation practice is likely to be informedby values and skills that are recognizably within the traditionof social work, and concludes that despite pressures to abandonsocial work as a basis for probation practice, it is not obviouswhat the alternative could be.     

Non-Statutory Mental Health Social Work in Primary Care: A Chance for Renewal?

Correspondence to Malcolm T. Firth, Honorary Research Fellow & Senior Psychiatric Social Worker, 'DEAL', Department of Psychiatric Social Work, 12th Floor, Mathematics Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK. E-mail: malcolm.firth{at}mhsc.manchester.nhs.uk Summary The current status of evidence-based practice in the field ofmental health has led some to question the potential for innovationif social work practice is organizationally proscribed or reducedto a dogged adherence to methodological orthodoxy. Conversely,social work's value base is esteemed disproportionately to itsevidence base. Changing service contexts in the UK, particularlythe emergence of Primary Care Trusts as gatekeepers and commissionersof health and social care services, are providing opportunitiesfor social work to develop a new presence and purpose. The authorsdescribe their work in a small-scale service based in primarycare that anticipated these opportunities, by a retrospectivestudy of 120 cases. A new evidence base that derives directlyfrom practice is suggested as a way forward for social workeducation and training, as well as for service and professionaldevelopment.