Sex differentials in premature death among professionals Part II

This is Part II of a two-part article. It explores two hypotheses proposed to explain a reversal of the sex differential in mortality which appears in the 1968–72 death rates of Wisconsin professionals. The first hypothesis proposes that the observed effect is attributable to differentials in the distribution of behavioural risk factors for leading causes of death. Explanatory variables include childlessness, late age at first full-term pregnancy, and relatively high rates of smoking and drinking. Professional men had very low mortality rates from conditions implicating behavioural causes, leading to optimism that low-risk living can introduce a new phase into the epidemiological transition. The second hypothesis posits that the effect may be due to differentials in occupational variables which have systematic gender-divergent outcomes. Occupational levels, tasks, environments and careers all have the potential for such effects. The overall conclusion of the study is that health is systematically related to the quality of support and other conditions in the two major micro-environments for living: work and home.     

Fertility differentials among the tribal groups of Sierra Leone

Abstract Sierra Leone is in a position typical of many African countries regarding accurate information on her basic demographic characteristics. Such vital registration as exists is confined to a small area and there has been only one census of any reliability, that of 1963. Estimates of fertility levels from the age distribution obtained from that enumeration have been made by Dow, the method having been used previously by Van de Walle for Nigeria.     

Complex measures of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction among professionals

The present study deals with concepts of work satisfaction/dissatisfaction and occupational commitment among professionals. It examines elements of job satisfaction and individual social background among four professional groups: Doctors, Engineers, Lawyers and Teachers, as well as their differences in level of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. A two-stage principal components method was applied to data from the longitudinal study ‘Professions in Australia’ to obtain global measures of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Although there are some differences between professional groups in terms of work satisfaction/dissatisfaction, stemming, among other things, from the different prestige ascribed to each profession, to a large extent, they face similar ‘problems’ and derive similar ‘satisfaction’ from their professional work.     

White-nonwhite differentials in occupational mobility among men in the United States, 1962–1972

Intercohort shifts between 1962 and 1972 in the occupation distributions of white and nonwhite men are analyzed and compared at ages 35-44, 45-54, and 55-64. Both white and nonwhite occupation distributions were upgraded over the decade, but among nonwhites the shifts away from the lowest-status occupations were expressed partly in increasing rates of absence from the labor force. There are indications of especially rapid shifts in the occupation distributions of nonwhite men at ages 35-44. Among whites and nonwhites intercohort shifts in the occupation distribution can be attributed primarily to changing patterns of movement from first full-time civilian jobs to current occupations, rather than to changing occupational origin distributions or patterns of movement to first jobs. The white and nonwhite occupation distributions did not show a clear pattern of convergence over the decade. They became less similar at ages 35-44 and more similar at older ages. White and nonwhite distributions were most likely to converge in those occupation groups where the share of whites was stable or declining, rather than in groups whose share of the occupation distribution was increasing. Later cohorts of nonwhites would have a much more favorable occupational distribution if they had enjoyed the mobility patterns of whites in earlier cohorts. In 1972, as in 1962, the inferior occupational chances of nonwhites are due primarily to their disadvantageous patterns of occupational mobility, rather than to impoverished social origins.     

Measuring the value of statistical life: estimating compensating wage differentials among workers in India

Policy makers confronted with the need to introduce health and safety regulations often wonder how to value the benefits of these regulations. One way that a monetary value could be placed on reductions in health risks, including risk of death, is through understanding how people are compensated for the different risks they take. While there is an extensive literature on VSL and compensating wage differentials for the developed countries, few such studies exist when it comes to developing countries. Our study is an attempt at obtaining estimates of VSL that reflects Indian risk preferences. Based on a survey of 550 workers in Chennai and 535 workers in Mumbai, we find the value of a statistical life in India to be approximately Rs. 15 million. The value of statistical injury ranges from Rs. 6,000 to Rs. 9,000. Policy makers interested in programs to decrease environmental and health risks could use these numbers as one bench-mark against which costs can be assessed.

Residency differentials in Mormon fertility

Abstract Although one of the most consistent findings of recent fertility studies is the convergence of the religious differentials in fertility, few data have been analysed to discover Mormon fertility trends and differentials. This paper, based on data obtained on 1,001 Mormon couples, is concerned with describing the effects that the dispersion of Mormon families from the Mormon centre in Utah to surrounding areas with various social conditions is having on the fertility of the re-located Mormon families. Data presented clearly show that such families do, on the average, have a lower fertility than do their Mormon contemporaries residing in the homogeneous Mormon society in Utah. They probably compromise their religious obligations to have children with the contradicting demands of their new environment. Their loyalty to these religious beliefs, however, is confirmed by data which show that they tend to have larger families in their new environments than do their non-Mormon neighbours.     

Migrant-native socioeconomic differentials in Thailand

Recent research has suggested that the position of many urban migrants compares favorably with that of urban natives. This generalization is refined by referring to three key distinctions: migrants from rural versus urban origins, recent versus more experienced cityward migrants, and type of urban destination. In Thailand in the early 1970s, migrants to smaller urban centers, especially the more experienced migrants, are economically more successful than migrants to the large metropolitan centers and in some cases are more successful than urban natives. Reasons for this pattern are discussed.     

Residency differentials in Mormon fertility

Although one of the most consistent findings of recent fertility studies is the convergence of the religious differentials in fertility, few data have been analysed to discover Mormon fertility trends and differentials. This paper, based on data obtained on 1,001 Mormon couples, is concerned with describing the effects that the dispersion of Mormon families from the Mormon centre in Utah to surrounding areas with various social conditions is having on the fertility of the re-located Mormon families. Data presented clearly show that such families do, on the average, have a lower fertility than do their Mormon contemporaries residing in the homogeneous Mormon society in Utah. They probably compromise their religious obligations to have children with the contradicting demands of their new environment. Their loyalty to these religious beliefs, however, is confirmed by data which show that they tend to have larger families in their new environments than do their non-Mormon neighbours.     

Rural-urban fertility differentials in Western Nigeria

Abstract The paper attempts to glean some information on differential fertility from data obtained in a survey of selected urban and rural communities in Western Nigeria. The results show that the attitudes of rural women are far more favourable to high fertility than those of urban women, though for both groups the modal number of children preferred is five or six. The analysis also yields a total fertility of nearly six and an average family size of about five for both groups. No conclusive evidence of rural-urban fertility differentials has, however, been found. All that can be said on the basis of the available data is that the level of fertility in Western Nigeria is currently very high and that urban fertility is probably as high as rural fertility, though the probability of much larger errors in the rural than in the urban data may imply somewhat higher rural fertility.     

Non-familial activity and socio-economic differentials in fertility

The relationship between socio-economicstatus and fertility among married women is examined, using data from the 1/1,000 sample from the 1960 United States Census of Population and the 1960 Growth of American Families Study. Both sets of data indicate that the negative relationship between socio-economic status and fertility is still prevalent but may reflect different patterns of child-spacing rather than completed fertility. Labor force participation among these women is found to be negatively related to the number of children ever born. To determine the degree of involvement in this type of non-familial role, the work index or proportion of one’s married life engaged in the labor force is developed. The work index is found to be a particularly sensitive measure of involvement in the worker role vis-a-vis their fertility. The working hypothesis of this study, that such non-familial activity has a different effect according to one’s socio-economic status, is borne out. Participation in the labor force results in a relatively larger reduction in the fertility of upper status women than for those of lower status. However, this relationship apparently holds true only for those women from rural backgrounds but not for those from large urban areas.     

Religious fertility differentials in Thailand, 1960

Abstract Although the evidence supporting high fertility in Thailand is clear-cut, little is known about fertility differentials within the population. As part of a larger investigation, a special 1 % tabulation of the 1960 Thai census data on number of children ever-born to married women has been analysed to determine the extent of differentials by religion and urban-rural status. The findings point to considerable differentials among Buddhists, Moslems, and Confucianists. Standardizing for age, the number of children ever-born to 12/loslems averaged well below the number born to Buddhists. Confucian fertility was intermediate. Within specific age groups, the number of children ever-born to Moslem women was considerably below the Buddhist average and the differentials were sharper in the higher age groups. By contrast, Confucian fertility was highest of all in the age groups under 35, but lower than the Buddhist averages among older women. Significant urban-rural differentials also exist. For both the Buddhist and the Confucian women, fertility is markedly lower in urban than in rural categories. When controlling for both age and urban-rural status, Buddhist and Confucian differences tend to be minimal. By contrast, Moslem fertility was highest in the most urban category - Bangkok - but was considerably lower and substantially below the fertility levels of Buddhists and Confucianists in all other urban-rural categories. The census data in themselves do not permit adequate analysis of the reasons for the differentials. Later age at marriage in urban places may be a significant factor in accounting for the overall differentials in urban-rural fertility ; but this relation is much less clear for specific religious groups, particularly since Moslems marry at a considerably earlier age. More frequent divorce and remarriage may lower Moslem rates. Poorer health may also be a factor.     

Family structure and socio-economic differentials in fertility

Abstract The long standing research on the relation of socio-economic status and fertility has recently given way to a focus on those factors which account for class differentials. Although class differences in fertility seem to be diminishing, the basic relationship remains inverse.(2) In an attempt to explain class differentials in fertility, researchers have begun to look at such variables as age at marriage(3), value orientations(4), and non-fiunilial activity.(5) Bumpass demonstrated that age at marriage is an interaction variable which greatly attenuates the relationship between social class and fertility. He found that the relationship was inverse among women marrying before age 19, but direct among women who were 23 years or older at first marriage. Clifford examined value orientations as an intervening variable in the socio-economic status-fertility relationship. Modern and traditional value orientations did aid in interpreting the relationship, but other factors were also operative. Kupinsky found that the non-familial activity of women decidedly influenced socio-economic differentials infertility. Thelabour force participation of women had a greater effect on reducing fertility among upper-status women than among those of lower status. This relationship was also influenced by the rural-urban background of the women.     

Gay Monogamy: I Love You But I Can't Have Sex With Only You

Assuming isomorphism between heterosexual and homosexual relationships may preclude a contextual understanding of gay male monogamy and extra-dyadic sex that may otherwise remain perfunctory. This study sought to explore the experiences of gay men who engaged in extra-dyadic sex outside their primary relationships. Based on qualitative interviews with eight gay men, this study may shed light on the relational structures and processes of same-sex unions. Several strategies including compartmentalization, boundary affirmation and secretiveness were reported to be utilized to preserve emotional monogamy and primary relationship quality. Such findings may bear relevance to therapeutic practitioners working with this group that may challenge normative relationship conventions.     

The cost of children. Part I

Using pre-war surveys of expenditure an attempt is made to assess the effect of the addition of one or more children on the distribution of expenditure. It is found that the changes between broad groups are small. The chief effect is an increased expenditure in the larger families on food and children's clothing, compensated by reduced expenditure on luxuries and adult clothing. It is confirmed that expenditure on accommodation does not rise with family size.     

Urban-rural differentials in infant mortality in Victorian England

This paper examines the magnitude of urban-rural differentials in infant mortality in England during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and also compares the timing of decline for a selection of towns of varying size, and their immediate rural hinterlands. Most towns continued to experience short-term fluctuations in infant mortality until the very end of the nineteenth century; however, in some of the adjacent rural communities--where levels of infant mortality were much lower--conditions were sufficiently favourable to allow a continuous decline in infant mortality from at least the 1860s, if not before. The final part of the paper considers the causes of these patterns and their implications for explanations of infant mortality decline.     

Underlying versus multiple causes of death: Effects on interpreting cancer mortality differentials by age,sex, and race

The conventional approach to measuring the medical cause of death in mortality analysis bases death on a single, underlying cause. An alternative approach, which makes use of all of the medical conditions cited by a physician on the death certificate and treats them in a multiplecause framework, is compared with the conventional approach in studying differential mortality among those 45 years of age and older in Florida. The two approaches are seen to provide different patterns of information that have analytical as well as policy ramifications.     

A contribution to the problem of premature mortality among Polish population

The author analyzes trends in premature mortality in Poland from 1960 to 1995. "Over the last 35 years the percentage of premature deaths in Poland decreased systematically: from 55.5% to 33.2%.... The intensity of deaths among males over 30 [has increased rapidly]; during the same period the intensity of deaths among females was relatively stable, with a slight downward tendency."