Cognitive distortions predict future gambling involvement

Disordered gambling is best conceptualized as a continuum of severity. Previous research has demonstrated the utility of studying individuals at all points of this spectrum. The sequence of the development of gambling problems and change in gambling involvement along this continuum of severity is not well understood. The present study examined the interplay between cognitive distortions and gambling involvement in a population sample recruited in Alberta, Canada. Data from 1372 participants over 4 assessment waves (5 years) were used to generate a 2-factor latent structure using gambling fallacies and gambling involvement measurements. Structural equation modelling showed that cognitive distortions more strongly predicted future gambling involvement than the reverse relationship, using the comparative fit index (CFI) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) to assess the models. In addition, cognitive distortions declined over time, whereas gambling involvement remained stable. The results of the study suggest that focusing primarily on cognitive mechanisms in public health initiatives for gambling disorders may be a more effective strategy than focusing on behavioural solutions.     

Cognitive distortions as a problem gambling risk factor in Internet gambling

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of cognitive distortions in Internet gambling. The primary objectives were to determine whether cognitive distortions predict Internet gambling and investigate whether distorted gambling-related cognitions are associated with problem gambling severity among online gamblers. Three hundred and seventy four undergraduate participants (143 online gamblers, 172 males) completed an online questionnaire looking at demographics, play-related variables (duration, frequency and expenditures of play) and cognitive distortions. Variables were entered into a logistic regression model to predict online gambling. Three variables made independent contributions to predicting Internet gambling: male gender, higher frequency of play, and cognitive distortions. A hierarchical linear regression analysis with Internet gamblers revealed that cognitive distortions accounted for a proportion of the variance in problem gambling severity beyond variance accounted for by demographic variables and level of gambling involvement. Results suggest that cognitive distortions are a risk factor in online gambling.     

Cognitive and behavioral therapies for pathological gambling

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of behavioral and cognitive treatment approaches in the management of pathological gambling disorders. Disappointingly, the literature to date contains only one controlled outcome study in which two differing behavioral techniques were compared. Although research in general has focussed on identifying the nature of cognitive distortions in gambling, findings from these studies have not been systematically translated into treatment programs. It is concluded that methodological limitations including small sample size, absence of control groups, multiple concurrent interventions and poorly defined outcome criteria preclude conclusive statements to be drawn regarding the active ingredient of either behavioral or cognitive strategies. The program offered within the Impulse Disorders Research Centre is outlined.The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the assistance and contribution of Zachary Steel, Research Assistant, in the preparation of this paper.     

Public opinion towards gambling and gambling regulation in Australia

In recent years, public opinion towards gambling has become a more important factor in shaping public policy. Using a national public opinion survey conducted in Australia in 2011, this paper examines public opinion towards gambling in general and towards the government regulation of gambling in particular. Australia is an important case study because of the internationally high prevalence of gambling among the public, combined with a strong regulatory framework. Public opinion is measured by a reduced form of a scale first developed in Britain. The results confirm the generally negative views that the public holds towards gambling, which have been found internationally. In addition, the Australian public is open to the introduction of further restrictions on gambling. Overall, the public views the liberalization of gambling as having moved as far as most citizens find acceptable; to meet public expectations, future policies need to address more adequately the negative social consequences associated with problem gambling.     

Gender,gambling and problem gambling

With data from a 1989 Iowa survey (N=1,011), adult male and female respondents are compared on their problem gambling, its correlates, as well as their gambling behavior. Gambling behavior means its scope, frequency, wagering and leisure time spent at gambling. Women's gambling behavior was lower than that of men, due to their having a narrower scope of gambling behavior, but the genders were not significantly different on frequency, wagering and time spent at gambling. Women and men did not differ significantly on problem gambling. Problem gambling is measured as loss of control over gambling, and consequences due to gambling as well as gambling behavior. Women and men did differ significantly, however, on several predictors of problem gambling. Women's estrangement from a conventional lifestyle and integration into a social world of gambling appeared to help explain their problem gambling. Alcohol consumption appeared to be a more important predictor for men than women. The genders shared the attitude that the odds can be beat as well as being big spenders as predictors of their problem gambling. The results are interpreted with practitioners' efforts to prevent and treat problem gambling in mind.This research was partially supported by the Iowa Department of Human Services and the Na tional Institute of Mental Health (1 RJ01 MH50369-01A1). The authors are grateful to anonymous re viewers and the editor of this journal for many helpful suggestions.     

National survey on lifestyles and gambling in Serbia: gambling participation and problem gambling in adult population

The aim was to examine the association of socio-demographic and lifestyle characteristics with gambling severity level. The study was a part of the National Survey on Lifestyles in Serbia: Substance Abuse and Gambling, in 2014. The sample consisted of 5385 individuals. Based on the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) score participants were divided into non-problem gambling, low-/moderate-risk gambling and problem gambling. Prevalence of problem gambling was 0.5%, which was associated with having poor self-perceived financial status, having moderate or high risk for psychological distress, playing sports betting, casino games and slot machines. Low/moderate gambling was associated with having poor self-perceived financial status, number of drinking days per year, using any illicit drugs in the last 30 days, playing sports betting, slot machines, and online betting. Programmes of early detection of problem gambling should be developed, and regulation of availability of slot machines and sports betting.     

Compulsive gambling in Britain

In 1968 England legalized casino gaming. Unlike their counterparts in America, legislators in the House of Lords actively debated ways to help compulsive gamblers. Parliament adopted the 48 hour rule, requiring players to wait two days before gambling, put severe restrictions on check cashing in casinos and, limited the number of slot machines to two per club. England considered, but rejected, other proposals: the method, used in France, of allowing compulsive gamblers to voluntarily put their names on a list of persons to be excluded and, complete prohibitions on casino credit. Although the legislative restrictions greatly reduced compulsive gambling among adult gamers; sadly, Parliament ignored what has become a growing source of compulsive gambling among children: the practically unlimited availability of public arcades with amusement machines paying small cash prizes.The author wishes to thank James Claber for assistance in this article.     

Ways in which gambling researchers receive funding from gambling industry sources

Using data from computer-assisted telephone interviews with 1000 18- to 24-year old Australians, the structure underlying participation in 12 gambling activities was investigated. Factor analysis indicated that activities were differentiated into those that are chance-based, involve selecting a winner and involve individuals' skills. Gambling problems, assessed using a four-item factor, were related to participation in the two skill-based activity types. Males participated in these more than females. Age was positively related to participating in activities involving selecting a winner and negatively to those involving individuals' skills. Participation in activities associated with the three factors was differentially related to individual difference factors along with family and peer participation in, and support for, gambling. Together the results indicate that young Australians do not view gambling activities homogeneously and future research should focus on the predictors and outcomes of different types of gambling among this age group.     

A generational comparison of problem gambling and gambling attitudes among older adult gambling venue patrons

Gambling is a popular leisure activity for older adults (55+), and existing research suggests that overall older adults are less prone to problem gambling compared to younger cohorts. People born after World War II are now beginning to reach retirement age. The purpose of this article was to explore age-related cohort differences between people born from 1943 to 1960 compared to those born from 1925 to 1942 in their attitudes and behaviours related to gambling. This study employs a large sample (2103) of older adults collected at gambling locations across Southern Ontario, Canada in 2013. Comparisons were made using Pearson’s chi-squared tests for categorical variables and independent samples t-tests for continuous variables with logarithmic transformations for highly-skewed variables. Those of the 1943 to 1960 cohort showed significantly higher problem gambling scores and per visit spending, but lower numbers of visits per year. There was no discernible pattern between cohorts in terms of attitudes toward gambling. Assumptions of lower risk of problem gambling among older adults will have to be re-evaluated as the post-war generation becomes an ever greater proportion of older adults.     

Models of gambling and gambling addictions as perceptual filters

Models, in the sense of loosely entertained clusters of beliefs, attitudes, assumptions and expectations which direct the work of researchers and clinicians, also act as perceptual filters, tending to focus the attention of those who use them on certain aspects of reality and relegating to the background or ignoring altogether other aspects of the field of study and action. The central characteristics of social learning and of medical models are briefly reviewed and they are compared as perceptual filters for their distorting effects on research in gambling and in gambling addictions and on intervention strategies for problem gamblers. It is concluded that the exclusive predominance of any one model leads to the impoverishment of both research and intervention.     

Forms of gambling,gambling involvement and problem gambling: evidence from a Swedish population survey

The purpose of this study was to explore the association between problem gambling (PG) and participation in different forms of gambling in order to elucidate relationships between PG, gambling involvement and gambling intensity. Using data from the first wave of the Swedish Longitudinal Gambling Study (Swelogs) (n = 4,991), the study tested four hypotheses, namely that (1) some forms of gambling are more closely associated with PG than other forms; (2) high gambling involvement is associated with PG; (3) gambling involvement is positively associated with the intensity of gambling; and (4) the relationship between gambling involvement and PG is influenced by the specific forms of gambling in which individuals participate. All four hypotheses were supported. More specifically, the study found that while many PGs regularly participate in multiple forms of gambling, half of PGs participate regularly in only one or two forms of gambling. The study concluded that some forms of gambling are more closely associated with problem gambling than other forms, and that gambling policy and regulation, as well as the development of responsible gambling initiatives, should focus on these forms.     

Gender differences in gambling preferences and problem gambling: a network-level analysis

Most gambling studies have a gender-blind research approach, although a large body of scientific evidence suggests that gambling in females is on the rise and that males and females have different gambling behaviours and experience specific gambling-related harm. This study addressed these gender differences using a network analysis, an innovative approach considering disorders/concepts as dynamic systems of interacting symptoms/items. Data on gambling activities, problem gambling, substance use and mental health were collected in a representative sample of French adult gamblers (n = 8805). The study capitalized on the network analysis directly to compare associations of specific gambling activities with gambling disorder symptoms separately for both genders. The network analysis revealed that problem gambling was strongly associated with gambling machines among females, whereas it was related to sports betting, poker and casino games among males. The networks that included substance use and mental health showed that substance use was related to specific gambling activities. These findings confirm the links between various gender-specific gambling patterns and problem gambling and suggest a need to consider these gender differences to improve prevention efforts. More broadly, the present study further supports the importance of gender differences for gambling research and policy.     

Pathological gambling: A comparison of gambling at German-style slot machines and “Classical” gambling

German-style slot machines and related legal issues are described. On the basis of a survey on 437 members of self-help groups (Gamblers Anonymous) in Germany, slot machine gamblers were compared with casino gamblers on such variables as sociodemographic data, gambling behaviour, financial expenditure, emotional experience while gambling, symptoms of pathological gambling, psychosocial consequences and gambling related delinquency. The casino gamblers' gambling behaviour is financially more extensive. There were similarities regarding the emotional intensity of the gambling experience. However the casino gamblers show more pronounced symptoms of pathological gambling and the psychosocial consequences of their gambling behaviour are more severe. In spite of these differences, the data show that for young people slot machines can be as stimulating and therefore as dangerous as casino gambling. The young slot machine gambler runs a similar risk of acquiring a pathological gambling habit as the casino gambler.I would like to thank Dr. Gerhard Meyer for his support and his comments on the first draft of this article which is based on data from a research project led by him.     

Monitoring adolescent gambling in Minnesota

Youth gambling was investigated in a prospective sample of 532 Minnesota adolescents and young adults. Of particular interest was the possible impact among the study sample of a recent state lottery and of reaching the legal age for gambling on changes in the rate and type of gambling. Overall rates of gambling involvement and pathological gambling did not change across the 1.5 year interval. However, a preference for certain types of gambling activities (e.g., lottery, casino machines) significantly increased, whereas more informal and unregulated games (e.g., betting on games of personal skill) significantly decreased. Also, access to gambling activities by underage youths was high, suggesting the need for tighter controls of legalized games and greater awareness of this problem by the gaming industry and public health officials.Support for this study was provided by the Minnesota Department of Human Services, Compulsive Gambling Treatment Program. A version of this work was presented at the Seventh National Conference on Gambling Behavior, July 24, 1994, New London, CT.     

Gender,gambling settings and gambling behaviours among undergraduate poker players

A gender divide in gambling is commonly observed among college populations. This study examines whether settings where students gamble on poker mediate the relationship between gender and poker gambling behaviours. Undergraduate poker players, 126 females and 242 males, were randomly sampled from three universities in Montreal, Canada. Three outcomes measuring risky behaviours were considered: severity of gambling problems as measured by the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), past-year poker spending and past-year poker debt. Multiple mediation analyses were conducted. The effect of gender on outcomes was analysed through three putative mediators: gambling on poker in private residences, in public locations or on the Internet. Male gender positively relates to risky gambling behaviours and occurrence of gambling in various settings. Risky gambling behaviours are positively related to gambling in various settings. Overall, the occurrence of playing poker in public locations and on the Internet emerged as significant mediators in relation to PGSI score, past-year poker spending and past-year poker debt. Given the nature of the processes by which gender is related to risky gambling behaviours among undergraduate students, gambling needs to be understood through a perspective that focuses as much on contexts as it does on individuals.     

Legal gambling availability and problem gambling among adolescents and young adults

A national US telephone survey was conducted with 2274 respondents aged 14–21. The number of types of legal gambling operating in the respondent's state was positively related to the odds of lifetime gambling, current gambling, current frequent gambling and current problem gambling. For respondents aged 18–21, odds of current problem gambling, as opposed to never gambling, increased 39% for each additional type of legal gambling. The number of types of gambling in which a respondent was old enough to participate legally had a positive relationship to gambling involvement, including problem gambling. Being old enough to participate in specific forms of gambling was positively related to the frequency of playing those specific types. It was concluded that a greater number of types of legal gambling, as well as being old enough to legally play a greater number of types of gambling, is associated with a greater likelihood of problem gambling.     

Does gambling type moderate the links between problem gambling,emotion regulation,anxiety, depression and gambling motives

The aim of this study is to assess the link between emotion regulation, depression, anxiety and gambling motives among a population of regular gamblers, distinguishing between strategic and chance game players. We recruited 287 regular gamblers online, including both problem (PG) and non-problem gamblers (NPG). All participants completed online questionnaires to screen for problem gambling (SOGS) and to assess emotion regulation (ERQ), anxiety and depression (HADS) and gambling motives (GMQ-F). In this sample, 33.4% of participants were PG. PG scored significantly higher than NPG on the GMQ-F (except for the social subscale) and HADS, but not in ERQ. Gamblers who played both strategic and chance games displayed more frequent and severe gambling problems and had higher depression and anxiety scores than those playing only strategic games. Overall, enhancement and financial motives and depression significantly predicted PG. Finally, the study found that gambling type moderates the relationship between problem gambling and expressive suppression, depression and gambling motives. The results show the intricate relationship between gambling motives and psychiatric symptoms (in particular, depression) in PG. Mixed and strategic gamblers share common motives, but coping, financial and enhancement were stronger among PG. Finally, they emphasize the differences between different types of gamblers.     

Family violence in gambling help-seeking populations

Elevated rates of family violence among treatment-seeking problem gamblers compared to general population estimates have been reported in Spain, Canada and Australia. This study examined the occurrence of family violence among 454 problem gambling help-seeking clients (370 gamblers, 84 affected others) recruited through 3 national gambling treatment services in New Zealand. Measures used were the Problem Gambling Severity Index, and a modified version of the HITS Scale which assessed physical, emotional, verbal and sexual abuse. Past-year family violence among gamblers in this sample was 46.8% for victimization, 41.2% for perpetration and 55.0% for any form of family violence. Among affected others the occurrence was 65.5% for victimization, 57.1% for perpetration and 71.4% for any form of violence. The most common type of violence was verbal intimate partner violence. Affected others and women gamblers reported higher rates of violence victimization and perpetration. These findings underscore the importance of screening gambling help-seeking clients for family violence, and the development of prevention and treatment programmes to address violence in this population, with particular attention to affected others and women gamblers. Future research should assess coercive control and the gendered nature of family violence among problem gambling help-seekers.     

Gambling and pathological gambling in adolescents

A survey of U.K. secondary school children (aged 11–16 years) was undertaken to enquire into the prevalence of adolescent gambling and pathological gambling on fruit machines, and related behaviours. Sixty-two percent of the children gambled on fruit machines, 17.3% at least weekly and 5.7% pathologically. Pathological fruit machine gambling was correlated with gambling for money on other games, cigarette and alcohol use, video playing, parental gambling, playing alone and an early start (8 years or younger). It was not correlated with age, gender or religion, and only weakly with parental occupation. The implications of the findings for future research and social policy are discussed.The author would like to thank the Economic and Social Research Council for funding this work through a Research Studentship Grant. The author would also like to thank Henry Lesieur, Ph.D. and reviewers of the Journal of Gambling Studies for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Special thanks to Professor David Dunkerley for his invaluable support of this project.     

Plasma endorphin levels in pathological gambling

Despite its formal definition as a disorder of impulse control, pathological gambling has come under the generic label of addictive disorders with subjective excitement and physiological arousal as the major motivating factor. Individual differences in autonomic/cortical arousability in interaction with irregular schedules of reinforcement have been postulated to be important determinant factors in the pathogenesis of pathological gambling (Anderson & Brown, 1984). Mood disturbances and cross-addictions are frequently observed in pathological gamblers seeking treatment and the behavior has also been conceptualized as a defense against depression and anxiety. Recently the role of endorphins has been implicated in mood disturbances associated with psychiatric states and in addictive processes; the latter through their euphorogenic or reward-transmitting properties in accordance with operant and classical conditioning principles. The hypothesis that the etiology or maintenance of gambling behavior is related to endorphin activity was investigated in this study. Using radioimmunoassay techniques, baseline B-endorphin plasma levels were measured in a sample of 39 pathological gamblers seeking treatment and 16 male and 19 female non-gambling healthy control subjects. In addition, B-endorphin reactivity to gambling activity was measured in a subgroup of 13 horse-race gamblers.Diagnostic and Statistical Manual III criteria for diagnosis were used. Written consent was obtained. Blood samples were drawn at the same time of day for each subject. The experimental procedure consisted of taking baseline blood samples at 11 a.m. following which subjects were instructed to place a bet sufficient to excite them on a horse-race. A subsequent blood sample was taken at 2 p.m., five minutes after subjects listened to the race broadcast on radio. Heart rate measures and a visual analogue scale rating excitement, tension and urge to gamble were also administered immediately before and after the race broadcast. Results showed that as a group pathological gamblers did not differ from controls on baseline B-endorphin levels. But differentiating gamblers according to type of gambling activity revealed horserace addicts to have significantly lower baseline levels as compared to poker-machine players and controls. This finding provides empirical evidence for the hypothesis that distinct subgroups of gamblers exist and raises the corollary that different etiological factors may characterize each subgroup. That B-endorphin levels did not increase in response to gambling was explained by the failure of the relatively small bet size to generate high arousal.This paper was presented at the Sixth National Conference on Gambling and Risk Taking, held at Atlantic City, New Jersey, December 9 to 12, 1984.