Subsidiary Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Opportunity: An Institutional Perspective

A subsidiary's ability to identify opportunities in the host country and to subsequently exploit these opportunities could create competitive advantages for the Multinational Corporation. While research on subsidiary entrepreneurship has focused primarily on subsidiary-specific resources and capabilities, as well as environmental factors, the type of opportunities that the subsidiaries may find in the host environment has been underexplored. Drawing on the subsidiary entrepreneurship literature, institutional perspectives, and entrepreneurship research, this paper suggests that subsidiaries embedded in institutional contexts that are different from those of their home country have unique advantages that enable the identification of entrepreneurial opportunities. Accordingly, a theoretical framework is proposed, based on contingency perspectives on the different views of entrepreneurial opportunities in relation to business processes in the host country's institutional environment, vis-a-vis uncertainty levels and legitimacy requirements. In addition, appropriate strategic approaches are suggested, through which subsidiaries can exploit these entrepreneurial opportunities.     

Exploring the Important Role of Organizational Factors in IT Business Value: Taking a Contingency Perspective on the Resource‐Based View

Despite the importance to researchers and practitioners of how information technology (IT) contributes to organizational performance, there is an ongoing debate about the extent of IT business value (ITBV) and how to measure ITBV. Recently, a number of researchers have applied resource‐based view (RBV) and contingency theory to investigating ITBV, with mixed results. Researchers have started to recognize that ITBV is closely associated with the synergies created from IT and a variety of complementary organizational factors, which might be an alternative way to explain these mixed results. Through a review of the literature, this paper assesses the current level of knowledge in ITBV research. It identifies that significant progress has been made in the research domain, but that in‐depth inquiry into ITBV is still needed. Based on RBV and contingency theory, a research framework has been developed. The framework suggests that firms might be able to gain significant performance improvements if IT resources are in alignment with additional organizational factors (i.e. organizational strategy, organizational process, organizational culture, organizational structure). The authors believe that this framework will be valuable in assisting researchers and practitioners in understanding the complex ITBV process.     

An empirical evaluation of the management resourcing strategy of a Western multinational within a post-socialist Polish subsidiary

The continued globalization process and internationalization of business is increasingly raising issues concerning human resource strategy and practice in those organizations operating across international boundaries. This paper presents an empirical evaluation of the management resourcing strategy of a Western multinational corporation (MNC) within a post-socialist Polish subsidiary. Findings suggest a high level of pragmatism in relation to management staffing decisions. Whilst normative resourcing models emphasize the importance of environment, organization and job analysis in selecting and preparing managers for expatriate appointments, these processes are contingency constrained. Difficulties of adaptation and integration of the Polish subsidiary serve to increase reliance on expatriate managers.     

Towards a re-conceptualization of firm internationalization: Heterogeneous process,subsidiary roles and knowledge flow

This paper proposes a re-conceptualization of firm internationalization to understand and predict the rapid global expansion of firms since the 1990s, especially those from emerging markets. First, based on a review of existing literature, we re-conceptualize firm internationalization as a heterogeneous process of strategic development of subsidiaries in overseas countries or regions. This re-conceptualization captures the pluralistic character of the process of firm internationalization.Second, we delineate peculiar roles played by subsidiaries in pursuit of multinational enterprise (MNE) headquarters' internationalization strategies. We argue that the HQ's heterogeneous strategies toward overseas subsidiary development define the corresponding roles of subsidiaries, which in turn shape the knowledge-flow patterns within the MNEs. Finally, we link firms' internationalization strategies with different subsidiary roles to generate hypotheses concerning the effect of such links on subsidiary performance. We argue that the proper alignment of HQ's internationalization strategies with subsidiary roles will lead to success of the overseas subsidiaries; by contrast, a mismatch will lead to subsidiary failure. The paper thus contributes to the field of firm internationalization by linking its new conceptualization with the literature on subsidiary roles and knowledge flows in MNEs.     

What drives contract design in alliances? Taking stock and how to proceed

We collect and assess prior empirical evidence on contract design in alliances that has been published since Parkhe’s (1993) seminal study on inter-firm contracts. We elaborate on the effects of transaction-related factors, experience gained from prior relationships, and deliberate learning efforts on contracts. Our paper offers three contributions. First, we systematically review the existing literature on alliance contracts and summarize our findings. Second, while prior research has traditionally focused on contractual complexity, we place the content of contracts center stage and identify three contractual functions. While existing studies on contractual functions predominantly refer to safeguarding as a response to appropriation concerns, we also consider coordination and contingency adaptability as outcomes of adaptation concerns. Third, we disentangle the differential influences of previous experiences on distinct contractual functions and show that experience gained from prior relationships has different effects on safeguarding and contingency adaptability than on coordination. Overall, we add to the systematization of the current debate on alliance contract design and trace promising avenues for future research on the impact of transaction- and experience-related factors on the complexity and content of alliance contracts.     

知识转移绩效影响因素的实证研究——以软件行业为例

在总结国内外已有相关文献的基础上,结合"物理-事理-人理(W-S-R)"系统方法论,对以往学者提出的知识转移的阻碍因素和解决方法进行了归纳,提出并建立了针对组织内部知识转移绩效的影响因素的研究模型.通过向国内软件企业发放问卷的方式对该模型进行了实证研究,在对问卷数据充分分析后,得出了现实中影响我国软件企业知识转移绩效的关键因素和其他一些新颖的结论.     

Unravelling the Subsidiary Initiative Process: A Multilevel Approach

Strategy‐making and entrepreneurial behaviour at the subsidiary level, in particular the phenomenon of subsidiary initiative, has received increasing research attention in recent years. In the fields of international business, strategy and entrepreneurship, several studies addressing aspects of this phenomenon have been conducted. They focused on different stages of the subsidiary initiative process, different theories and also different methodological levels. This puts subsidiary initiatives as a topic at the crossroads of several disciplines, so that theory‐building remains fragmented, and there is a lack of perspective capturing the complexity of the entire subsidiary initiative process. Based on a comprehensive literature review, this paper discusses theoretical concepts and streams of thinking that have contributed to our understanding of the subsidiary initiative process, and develops an organizing framework based on stages and levels of the subsidiary initiative process. In order to integrate theories across levels, the authors identify ‘aggregation’ theories that guide the emergence of initiatives from the individual up to the network level, and also acknowledge theories that link the micro–macro divide and may help in the development of a more holistic view of subsidiary initiatives.     

Enterprise governance and value-based management: a theoretical contingency framework

In an attempt to provide a better understanding of the tension between conformance and performance in the governance context, this study develops a conceptual model for enterprise governance (EG) from the contingency theory perspective. The study argues that the value-based management (VBM) approach can achieve the objectives of EG, keeping the right balance between conformance and performance. Therefore, the study investigates the implications of fit between four contingency factors and VBM on organisational performance using corporate governance (CG) mechanisms and corporate entrepreneurship as mediating factors. The study contributes to the literature by linking a performance management system, i.e. VBM, to the EG framework aiming to bridge the gap between management accounting, CG, and entrepreneurship disciplines.     

跨国公司在华子公司角色演化:理论及案例分析

本文根据影响子公司角色转变的因素,将子公司的角色根据每种因素的强弱不同分为八种类型,即起步者、淘汰者、办事员、支持者、小诸侯、贡献者、直辖领袖和自由领袖.根据该子公司角色划分方法和演化路径分析方法,本文深入研究了一家跨国公司在华子公司-BEC公司的角色演化情况,研究证实了本文得出的角色划分方法和演化路径分析框架的适用性,也得到了跨国公司在华子公司的一个具体演化路径.     

Knowledge ties among subsidiaries in MNCs: A multi-level conceptual model

While ties among subsidiaries—the key players of a MNC network—are a prerequisite for the formation of the network and the flow of knowledge within the organization, we know little about factors influencing the formation of such ties. By building on the literature on inter-firm networks and knowledge-based view of the firm, we develop a multi-level model consisting of subsidiary characteristics, dyadic dynamics, and salient contextual factors to explain the inter-subsidiary collaboration for knowledge development and exchange. We bring to the fore the importance of examining multiple dimensions in understanding what predicts tie formation and the efficacy of these ties in creating a knowledge advantage. This paper advances the notion of subsidiary knowledge networking capability—the ability to form, manage, and leverage a network for gaining and sharing knowledge—and suggests that such capability is critical for subsidiaries and by extension the MNC, to achieve a competitive advantage.     

From Rocking the Boat to Wagging the Dog: A Literature Review of Subsidiary Initiative Research and Integrative Framework

This literature review on the topic of subsidiary initiatives discloses a certain lack of conceptual clarity concerning the phenomenon. After providing an overview of the research field, the paper applies a conception of entrepreneurship inspired by Schumpeter (1912) as a basis for refining our understanding of just what a subsidiary initiative is and of the different kinds of subsidiary initiative. A framework is developed with a view to the current and anticipated growing importance of highly populated countries like China and India which are bound to raise the MNC-internal profile and weight of subsidiaries serving these national mega-markets. The framework distinguishes between organizational disequilibrium and market disequilibrium as a way to classify different types and different degrees of subsidiary initiative. It is argued that prior conceptions of subsidiary initiative in practice reveal a bias towards organizational disequilibrium and tend to overlook important MNC subsidiary initiatives involving market disequilibrium, generally neglecting the entrepreneurial dimension that Birkinshaw (1997) associated with the term when he initiated this research stream. Metaphorically speaking, although Birkinshaw was always clearly interested in MNC subsidiary initiatives that “wag the dog,” most follow-up research examines initiatives that merely “rock the boat.” Our framework helps capture the distinction and anticipates more dog-wagging by MNC subsidiaries in the future.     

城市路网运输性能退化成本评估模型

路网的运行受到诸多因素的影响而使得路网运输性能发生退化,分析了路网运输性能退化的影响因素和作用机理,给出了路网运输性能退化及退化的极端情况路段失效的成本分析过程框架.基于BPR路阻函数和用户均衡分配理论分析路网运输性能退化的成本函数,建立了拥堵情况下城市路网路段失效的成本评估模型.最后,通过实例分析了路网运输性能退化对出行成本影响的变化规律,给出了路网运输性能退化的极端情况路段失效成本评估的具体过程,研究表明路网运输性能退化对出行成本具有很大的影响,二者成显著的正相关关系.     

Intra-firm Subsidiary Grouping and MNC Subsidiary Performance in China

Many multinational corporations (MNCs) operate multiple subsidiaries in a foreign country. Drawing upon literature of organizational network and business group, we hypothesize that the number of subsidiaries of an MNC has an impact on subsidiary financial performance in China. We further hypothesized two moderating effects, namely subsidiary's country of origin and subsidiary size. The results show that subsidiary grouping effect is more salient for subsidiaries from Japan and South Korea, and that larger subsidiaries are less affected by the subsidiary grouping effect. Our empirical results were based on a sample of 40,315 MNC subsidiaries in China. The findings underscore the importance of group-based competitive advantages of MNC subsidiaries in international business.     

Motion picture performance: A review and research agenda

This paper provides a comprehensive literature review of empirical studies of motion picture performance published from 1977 to 2006 inclusive in the following five disciplines of the social sciences: strategy, organization theory, marketing, cultural economics and sociology. It introduces a novel framework which organizes the various dimensions and explanatory factors of movie performance into five distinct categories and underscores their relationships. The paper, which uses this model as a roadmap for discussions of film success, serves two complementary purposes. First, it clarifies the current state of the literature, stresses core contributions and exposes limitations in existing research by emphasizing hitherto neglected independent explanatory factors, dependent dimensions and correlations between them. Second, it introduces five conceptual, methodological and empirical suggestions for further cinema performance research aimed at addressing these limitations and, accordingly, at providing better accounts of motion picture performance in view of the fast-changing conditions of cinema production, marketing and consumption.     

网络购物顾客忠诚度影响因素的实证研究

顾客忠诚度是网络商家维护市场地位、保持持续竞争优势的重要因素。然而,网络环境下顾客忠诚度的复杂性和不确定性却成为阻碍电子商务进一步发展的瓶颈。因此,本文通过对以往文献的梳理,构建了以信任、在线网站特性、线下物流服务质量、顾客满意度、转换成本为外因潜在变量,以顾客忠诚度为内因潜在变量的假设模型,并以问卷调研的方式收集实证数据,采用因子分析和结构方程模型揭示网络环境下顾客忠诚度的影响因素和作用机制。研究发现：在网络环境下,信任不仅可以通过影响顾客满意度来间接地影响顾客忠诚度,而且可以成为顾客忠诚度的直接前因变量;在线网站特性和线下物流服务质量共同作用于顾客满意度的提升,并间接地影响顾客忠诚度的积累;顾客满意度和转换成本是网络环境下顾客忠诚度的主要影响因素。研究结论较为全面地反映了网络环境下顾客忠诚度的影响因素和作用机制,对于网络零售商有针对性地实施顾客忠诚计划有着十分重要的参考价值。     

Technological Diversification: A Systematic Review of Antecedents,Outcomes and Moderating Effects

Technological diversification has been linked to a wide range of phenomena, including financial performance, innovation, product diversification and inter‐organizational relationships. This is the first systematic review of this literature and provides an overview of its historical development and conceptual foundations. It finds that the role of contingency factors impacting the positive relationship between technological diversification and financial performance needs further exploration. Also, it finds that the research on the links between technological diversification and inter‐organizational relationships requires consolidation. This paper suggests three avenues for further research. First, it sets out an agenda for identifying the antecedents of technological diversification. Second, it identifies contextual factors that could shape the relationship between technological diversification and performance. Third, it argues that technological diversification research must engage with contemporary technological and organizational developments such as digital organizations, open boundaries and networks.     

SME internationalisation process: Key issues and contributions,existing gaps and the future research agenda

The literature that studies internationalisation of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), despite being only recent, has already become very extensive and fragmented, taking different approaches and contributing across diverse facets of internationalisation. There is also a need to analyse and systematise those issues that have received the attention in the field of SME internationalisation. This study aims to develop a systematic literature review on SME internationalisation. We correspondingly make recourse to the Web of Science and Scopus database, and analyse a total of 366 articles, spanning the period from 1995 to 2017, to identify the core issues and contributions made by the existing literature. The results enable the categorisation of the existing literature into three main areas of research: i) Internationalisation process, ii) Specific factors/variables influencing internationalisation; and iii) Internationalisation and performance. This structuring then establishes the grounds for grasping the gaps existing in the literature and to propose a future research agenda.     

Subsidiary marketing knowledge and strategic development of the multinational corporation

This paper explores distinctive marketing knowledge of subsidiaries as an important resource contributing to the performance of the multinational corporation (MNC). Two different paths are analyzed. The first is the direct effect of the usage of subsidiary marketing knowledge on the perceived performance of other MNC units. The second is the indirect effect in which an MNC's usage of subsidiary marketing knowledge affects its performance via capability development in technology and market expansion within the MNC. Using data on 237 MNC subsidiaries in Sweden, six hypotheses are tested in a LISREL model. The results indicate that an MNC's usage of subsidiary marketing knowledge directly affects its performance. Additionally, the results reveal a strong relation between subsidiary marketing knowledge and the subsidiary's impact on development of the capabilities of other MNC units' technology and their expansion on the market, which in turn, positively impacts the performance of the MNC.     

A path analytic study of the effect of top management support for information systems performance

Information systems (IS) have become a vital component of an organization's competitive practices. Organizations have tried to differentiate themselves based on their use and adaptation of new information technology. Top management support (TMS) is a significant factor in influencing the effectiveness of the IS function in an organization. The literature has conceptually supported this notion, but empirical evidence has been sparse. This paper develops a two-tiered framework for studying the relationship between top management support, the IS function, and IS performance. This conceptual model was empirically tested using structural equation modeling based on data collected through a survey instrument. The results support the direct and indirect relationships depicted in the model between top management support and IS performance.     

Strategic Orientations in Management Literature: Three Approaches to Understanding the Interaction between Market,Technology, Entrepreneurial and Learning Orientations

Market, technology, entrepreneurial and learning orientations have attracted major scholarly interest within their specific streams of literature for some decades. These strategic orientations are seen as principles that direct and influence the activities of a firm and generate the behaviours intended to ensure its viability and performance. Prior studies have argued that firms should develop and use multiple orientations, yet the relationship between different orientations has received only fragmented attention. This paper presents a systematic review of this literature, covering 67 scholarly articles published between 1987 and 2010 which investigate multiple orientations. The paper contributes first by summarizing the current state of knowledge on the interplay between these orientations. Many of these relationships have not been studied to any great degree, and there are research gaps in the information available on the relationships between entrepreneurial, technology and learning orientation in particular. Secondly, the paper contributes to further theoretical and empirical enquiry by synthesizing the empirical findings into a three‐approach framework. The sequential, alternatives and complementary approaches to perceiving the relationship between orientations all suggest areas for further research. The sequential approach could further contribute by developing better constructs for explaining the orientation of the firm; while the alternatives approach could increase its relevance to management through the exploration of contingency settings and comparative studies. The complementary approach encourages discussion between researchers from the different streams of literature through the investigation of the relationships. It suggests focus on the investigation of both universal‐ and contingency‐dependent‐orientation configurations.