The impact of age vs. life experience on the gender role attitudes of women in different cohorts

Much research has concluded that the gender role attitudes of older women are more traditional in orientation. This line of research, however, has often confounded the impact of age and cohort. Consequently, cohort differences in life experiences have not been systematically explored. This study addresses the relationship between age and gender role attitudes, taking into account the potential mediating effects of life experiences and controlling for cohort. The conclusions suggest that the impact of age on gender role attitudes is not as strong as might be expected. Rather, the results show that the life experiences of different cohorts are better predictors of gender role attitudes among older women, though such experiences do not have the same impact on all women.     

Older women and sexuality: Narratives of gender,age, and living environment

Little research has explored the intersection of aging and sexuality. This qualitative study is informed by a life course approach and narrative gerontology methods. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 13 women age 55 and older to explore the effects of gender, aging, and living environment on past and current sexual experiences. Subthemes from each major theme are discussed, including: (a) messages about and perceived effects of gender, (b) perceived effects of aging, and (c) perceived effects of living environment. Findings support the use of dynamical systems theory to study women’s sexual experiences.     

The Mediating Role of Perceived Parental Warmth and Parental Punishment in the Psychological Well-Being of Children in Rural China

Research has documented that parenting practices, such as parental warmth and parental punishment, play a mediating role in linking individual (e.g., age, gender) and familial characteristics (e.g., economic status, marital quality) to the psychological well-being of children. However, few studies have validated these connections with respect to the Chinese population, especially those in rural areas of China plagued with unfavorable conditions such as poverty and lack of education. In this study, we investigated whether child (age, gender, and sibship size), and familial characteristics (family wealth, parental education, and marital quality) indirectly contribute to the children??s psychological well-being (as indicated by their self-reported internalizing and externalizing problems) through their perceived parental warmth and parental punishment. Using structural equation modeling, we analyzed data collected from 2,000 children (ages 9?C13) and their parents in rural China. The results reveal significant, indirect relationships from family wealth and marital quality to these children??s externalizing problems through parental warmth and parental punishment. There are age and gender differences in the children??s experiencing internalizing and externalizing problems. Gender differences are also found in their perceived parental warmth and parental punishment. Directions for future research are discussed.     

Portuguese Adolescents' Attitudes Toward Sexual Minorities: Transphobia,Homophobia, and Gender Role Beliefs

Research has shown that negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay men are common and widespread in Western societies. However, few studies have addressed attitudes toward transgender individuals. In addition, although research has shown that homophobic harassment and bullying is highly common among adolescents, little is known about adolescent's attitudes toward sexual minorities. This study aimed to fill these gaps in knowledge, by investigating adolescents' attitudes toward transgender individuals and possible attitudinal correlates of those attitudes. Participants (N?=?188; 62 males and 126 females) were recruited in high schools in Lisbon, Portugal. Age ranged from 15 to 19 years (M?=?17; SD = .96). Participants completed a questionnaire booklet measuring attitudes toward transgender individuals, lesbians, and gay men, and gender role beliefs. Results revealed that attitudes toward transgender individuals were significantly correlated with all attitude measures. Specifically, it was revealed that those participants who endorsed negative attitudes toward transgender individuals were also endorsing of negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay men and tended to adhere to traditional gender roles. A significant gender effect was found with males being more negative toward sexual minorities than females, but these negative attitudes were more extreme toward gay men than toward lesbian women. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

Attitudes Toward Same-Sex Parenting: An Effect of Gender

The definition of family in Australia has been continuously changing over the past four decades. The 21^st century has brought with it various images of family, with an increase of awareness to same-sex families; however, the acceptance of such family structures does not appear to be widespread and is often determined by sex. Substantive literature demonstrates differences between men and women in attitudes toward same-sex parenting, with theory suggesting that gender role norms may explain this. Despite large efforts to determine sex differences in attitudes toward same-sex parenting, little research, and even less in Australia, has been done to investigate whether there are differences in reasons behind negative attitudes toward same-sex parenting between men and women. To further this understanding, an Australian sample (N= 790) ranging in age from 18-78 completed a survey regrading attitudes toward same-sex parenting, in addition to relevant demographic information. Participants reported more positive attitudes about parenting by lesbians as compared to parenting by gay men. Reasons behind attitudes toward same-sex parenting also differed between males and females. Results suggested that the impact of socially prescribed gender norms may affect prejudice toward same-sex families. Despite an increase in tolerance for sexual minorities recently, policies that continue to discriminate against same-sex parenting rights demonstrates the importance of continuing to identify potential influences of same-sex family prejudice to reduce the potentially negative impacts associated with the prejudice.     

Reliability and Validity of Japanese Versions of the Flourishing Scale and the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience

The demographic aging of the older population itself has turned out as an issue of great scope, accumulating a large amount of research in recent years. In this context, the prediction or explanation is of much interest. However, little research has studied this prediction when some factors, such as age, gender, and perceived health are controlled, and also few studies have compared these effects in young old and oldest old populations. Thus, the purpose of this study is to test, in a multivariate context, the predictive effects of variables measuring social support, dependence/active perceptions, and generativity on satisfaction with life, while controlling for age, marital status, educational level, gender, and perceived health; examining young old and oldest old similitudes and differences in a little studied population, the Angolan elderly. The sample was formed by 1,003 participants, 737 were young old and 266 were oldest old. To test for the effects, a hierarchical regression was built up, in which age and predictor’s interactions were included. Results provide support for some differences in the pattern of relationships hold by young old and oldest old, with social support emerging as the major predictor of life satisfaction during the old age.     

Scrutinizing Homophobia: A Model of Perception of Homosexuals in Russia

We aimed to develop and validate a model of associations of perceived threat of homosexuals with lay beliefs about causes of homosexuality, group entitativity of homosexuals, approval of social action strategies targeting homosexuals, and support for their rights using original Russian-language measures. We tested the model in two samples of social network users (n = 1,007) and student respondents (n = 292) using structural equation modeling and path analysis. Attribution of homosexuality to social causes was a positive predictor of perceived threat of homosexuals, whereas biological causes showed an inverse effect. Perceived threat predicted approval of discriminatory strategies targeting homosexuals and lack of support for their rights and fully mediated the effects of causal beliefs on these variables. Group entitativity of homosexuals was a positive predictor of perceived threat and a significant moderator of its effects on support for punishment and medical treatment of homosexuals. We discuss the findings with reference to the Russian social context.     

Is Divorce More Painful When Couples Have Children? Evidence From Long-Term Panel Data on Multiple Domains of Well-being

Theoretical models of the divorce process suggest that marital breakup is more painful in the presence of children, yet little is known about the role of children as a moderator of divorce effects on adult well-being. The present study addresses this gap of research based on long-term panel data from Germany (SOEP). Following individuals over several years before and after divorce, we investigated whether the impact of divorce on multiple measures of well-being varied by the presence and age of children before marital breakup. Three central findings emerged from the analysis. First, declines in well-being were sharper in the presence of children, and these moderator effects were larger if children were younger. Second, domain-specific measures of well-being revealed gender differences in the moderating role of children. Mothers sustained deeper drops in economic well-being than did fathers; the reverse was true for family well-being. Third, most of these disproportionate declines in the well-being of divorced parents did not persist in the long term given that higher rates of adaptation leveled out the gaps compared with childless divorcees.     

Self-concept and contraception: Pre-conception decision-making

This paper deals with the extent to which two dimensions of self-concept, perceived competence and attitudes toward the female role, are a factor in pre-conception decision-making on contraceptive usage among women who have unwanted conceptions. The study was done throughout Michigan in 1974–75. The sample was 1746 women with unwanted conceptions, selected by means of a two-stage stratified sampling design. A standardized questionnaire included items on demographics, birth control use, and pregnancy resolution, as well as a feminism scale and a scale to measure perceived competence. Several multiple regression analyses were carried out. A hypothesis that contraceptive usage would be positively associated with perceived competence and negatively associated with traditional attitudes toward the female role was strongly supported. In an analysis of various subgroups, differing in age, race, and marital status, self-concept variables were significant predictors only among unmarried adults, regardless of race. Other important predictors of contraceptive usage among the subgroups were father's educational level, number of children raised by respondent, having a regular physician, and frequency of church attendance. For this sample, self-concept variables generally were better predictors of the pre-conception decision-making than of the post-conception decision.This research was supported by Grant #HD07739, NICHD. The authors are affiliated with Wayne State University.     

Natural family planning: A comparison of continuers and discontinuers

Little research has been done on social-psychological variables related to the use of natural family planning. The objective of this study was to analyze variables that differentiated between continuers and discontinuers of natural family planning (NFP). Questionnaires were obtained from couples who had received instruction in the sympto-thermal method of natural family planning at a large urban hospital. Subjects who were attempting to become pregnant or who were using other methods of contraception in conjunction with NFP were deleted from the analysis, leaving N of 74. With Pearson correlation, variables significantly related (p<.05) to NFP continuance were: religiosity, planning more children, perceived severity of pregnancy, support from spouse and relatives, dissatisfaction with other contraceptive methods, attitudes toward NFP, perceived effectiveness of NFP, attitudes toward abstinence, and importance of intercourse.     

Personality and quality of life

The present study investigated a possible association between personality, mental absorption and quality of life (QOL) in a sample of young males (N=411). Mental absorption was assessed with Tellegen's Absorption Scale (ABS). Using a 6 dimensional QOL-scale we found the Millon Behavior Health Inventory (MBHI) dimensions Basic coping style, Psychogenic attitudes, Psychosomatic correlates and Prognosic indices, to be firmly related to QOL, explaining 44% of the variance of a QOL scale which was derived through factor analysis. Mental absortion was weakly related to QOL. The discussion revolves around the relationship between personality and perceptual style, health report behavior and personality as possible biasing factor in evaluative QOL-investigations.     

Center-Based Care in the Context of One-Child Policy in China: Do Child Gender and Siblings Matter?

We examined the effects of child gender and siblings on center-based care enrollment in the context of China’s one-child policy and its tradition of preference to have many children, especially sons. Using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) 2000 wave and multilevel logistic regression models, we found that children without siblings consistently had higher odds of receiving center-based care than those with siblings, while there was no evidence that child gender mattered. Further analyses did not show evidence that the effects of child gender and siblings were moderated by household and community resources or local one-child policy. However, we did find that the presence of male, older, or school-age siblings (as compared to female, younger, or preschool-age siblings) reduced preschoolers’ odds of receiving center-based care. This was possibly because parents valued formal education much more than preschools and thus focused more on boys when they entered elementary schools than on their sisters or younger brothers. These findings suggest that more attention needs to be given to the equal education opportunities for boys and girls as well as for children with and without siblings.     

Perceptions of Same-Sex Relationships and Marriage as Gender Role Violations: An Examination of Gendered Expectations (Sexism)

The current study sought to add to the literature that has demonstrated a link between sexism and sexual prejudice. The study evaluated whether a community sample with an age range of 19–64 (n = 122), including 32% sexual minority participants, believe that dating, sex, and marriage with same-sex partners are perceived to be gender role violations. Results varied by participant sexual/gender identity (LGBTQ or heterosexual) and political ideology. Liberal LGBTQ persons do not see same-sex relationships as gender role violations; LGBTQ non-liberals and heterosexual liberals rated same-sex relationships as mild violations; and non-liberal heterosexuals perceive same-sex relationships as “moderate” violations. Our results suggest both positive movement in attitudes toward same-sex relationships, including same-sex marriage, and broader recognition that gender identity, gender role expression, and sexual orientation are separate and distinct components of one’s overall sexual identity.     

Development and Validation of the ADAS Scale and Prediction of Attitudes Toward Affective-Sexual Diversity Among Spanish Secondary Students

Violence against non-heterosexual adolescents in educational contexts remains a worrying reality, but no adequate attitudes toward affective-sexual diversity (AtASD) measure exists for Spanish adolescent students. We developed a 27-item scale including cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects, which was completed by 696 secondary school students from the Madrid area. Factor analyses suggested a unidimensional model, Cronbach’s alpha indicated excellent scale scores reliability, and item calibration under the item response theory framework showed that the scale is especially informative for homophobic attitudes. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that variables traditionally related to AtASD (gender, age, religion, nationality, perceived parental/peer attitudes, direct contact with LGB people) also were so in our sample. Moreover, interest in sexuality topics and perceived center’s efforts to provide AtASD education were related to better AtASD. Our scale was reliable and valid, and it may also prove useful in efforts to detect those students with homophobic attitudes and to guide interventions.     

Air pollution and depressive symptomatology: Exploratory analyses of intervening psychosocial factors

Exploratory modelling revealed associations of individual perceptions, social factors, and physical components of air pollution with depressive symptomatology. Residents of the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area who have experienced a recent, undesirable life event and who perceive poor air quality in their neighborhood have greater symptoms of depression. These effects control for socioeconomic status and prior psychological status. In addition we show that perceived air quality is a function of both toxic components of ambient air as well as individual psychosocial experiences.This research was supported by the National Institute for Mental Health (MH 28924-10A1) and the Southern California Edison Health Effects Research Laboratory (J-1909902). We thank Jean Ospital, Len Edwards, and Julian Foon for their assistance. Reprint requests should be sent to Gary Evans, Program in Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92717.     

Do We Think Children Need a Mom and Dad?: Understanding How Gender Ideology Impact Attitudes Toward Same-Gender Parent Family Rights

Research and opinion polls demonstrate that attitudes toward same-gender parent families have been improving in recent years among Western countries; however, the history of oppression toward, and misconceptions about, same-gender parent families continue to be demonstrated in Australian family rights policies. Common misconceptions include the belief that children need both male and female role models, and this could be influencing peoples’ support for same-gender family rights and having a wider impact on legislation change. Yet a dearth of research exists exploring a connection between gender role beliefs and support for same-gender family rights using a broad international sample, including Australia. To investigate this connection, a sample (N = 615) from 18 English-speaking countries responded to a series of questions to determine the importance of gender norm beliefs on same-gender family prejudice. Regression analysis demonstrated that people with traditional beliefs about gender norms were more likely to endorse a negative attitude toward same-gender marriage and same-gender parenting. Findings suggest a link between socially prescribed gender norms and prejudice toward same-gender parent families that may be fueling arguments against same-gender family rights policies. The implications of these findings on same-gender parent families and their rights require future investigation.     

Mortality in late nineteenth-century Montreal: geographic pathways of contagion

In the City of Montreal, 1881, the presence of three cultural communities with different profiles of economic status makes it possible to observe the way social settings affected survival over a lifetime. Regression models show culturally determined maternal factors dominant for infants, and persistent throughout childhood. For post-neonates, children aged 1-4, and adults aged 15-59 household poverty has a comparable effect. Among adults, a gender penalty differs among the three communities. Models are improved when differentiated by cause of death. Locating households using a GIS reveals high levels of residential segregation by ethnicity and income, spatial correlation of environmental hazards, and constraints on exit from zones of risk, which together produce neighbourhood effects as large as household effects. Attention to groups excluded (foundlings and inmates of institutions) confirms that models limited to full household-level information significantly underestimate the impacts of poverty and exclusion.     

The Effects of Death Reminders on Sex Differences in Prejudice Toward Gay Men and Lesbians

Terror management research shows that death reminders (mortality salience) increase prejudice toward worldview violators. Two studies investigated whether death reminders exacerbated differences in heterosexual men's and women's reports of sexual prejudice (negative attitudes based on sexual orientation). Results showed that following death reminders, sex differences in anti-gay discrimination and affective prejudice toward gay men (but not toward lesbians) were larger, and that these increased sex differences were mediated by gender role beliefs. The current studies suggest that researchers may attenuate the effects of death reminders by lessening the perceived worldview violation in addition to alleviating the existential terror of death.     

性别、家庭财富与不同年龄阶段儿童辍学行为——基于2006年中国营养与健康调查数据

基于2006年中国营养与健康调查截面数据中农村教育阶段儿童样本的研究,本文发现,儿童性别、教育阶段、母亲最高教育年限及父亲身体健康状况是影响儿童辍学的重要因素,然而,随着儿童年龄增长性别歧视和家庭财富状况的影响逐渐减弱,并且会在一定年龄阶段改变影响方向。儿童辍学行为的影响因素中家庭财富状况由家庭父母教育程度和职业内生决定。     

Biographical Sketches of Elderly African-American Women in Later Life

ABSTRACT

The research concerning the African-American elderly is limited, since this group is made up of less than eight percent of the entire U.S. population. Due to discriminatory practices in the U.S., based on race and gender, the African-American elderly woman has some unique issues facing her in old age. This paper will present three qualitative interviews of African-American women from age 65 to 100. These biographical sketches will report how these women dealt with family traditions, lifestyle changes, and growing old in their lives. Their perceptions of personal joys and frustrations, plus attitudes about how race, not gender, was a significant factor in their lives, will be reported. Education and religion were life-long strengths in their lifestyle.