Institutional Options,Cultural Orientation and Mothers’ Work and Family Reconciliation in Korea

This paper examines what determines mothers' work and family reconciliation in the Republic of Korea. We conducted a survey to examine the influence of use of institutional options such as childcare leave and services, and cultural orientation towards gender roles on the probability of being employed, paid and unpaid care work time, and monthly wages. Our findings show that mothers' with high education tend to be in paid work and to have more traditional attitudes towards gender role. The use of maternity leave increases but the use of parental leave tends to decrease mothers' labor market participation. Maternity leave also is found to influence positively on working mothers' monthly wages. However, no factor is found to be relevant to reduce working mothers' time spent on unpaid care work. Issues have been put forwarded for policy considerations. Firstly, the use of maternity leave should be encouraged and job protection needs to be secured with the use of parental leave. Secondly, mothers with relatively higher education tend to prefer familial care to institutional care. Last but not least, the availability of institutional care services do not effectively reduce mothers' time spent on unpaid care work.     

The impact of opening markets on Mexican male/female wage and occupational differentials

This article addresses the effect of a more open market under NAFTA on the economic status of Mexican women. It is assumed that increases in export processing and tourism, industries that have a high demand for female labor, will result from the agreement. The approach of this study is to use regression and correlation analysis to compare wage and occupational differences in two Mexican cities: Tijuana, on the U.S.-Mexican border, and Torreon, in the interior. A major findings is that the overall wage gap is statistically significantly lower where there is increased export processing activity, but there appears to be very little change in occupational segregation. Three additional impacts are: first, that labor force participation rates increase for both men and women, but proportionally more for women. Second, the higher labor demand appears to weaken the relationship between the job qualifications of education and experience and wages. Third, wages by gender are more equal, but for the labor force as a whole there is a greater level of wage dispersion.     

农民工工资:珠江三角洲农民工工资的决定因素(英文)

本文通过对珠江三角洲农民工问卷调查资料的回归分析,试图检验在市场转型下的企业制度和社会环境对农民工工资的影响。研究发现,人力资本中的教育年限、本企业工龄等变量对农民工工资有显著的正向影响,年龄和性别也有显著影响;企业制度中的工种对工资有显著影响,表现出明显的等级性。企业所属行业、规模和企业性质对工资没有显著影响,是否签订劳动合同和缺工情况同样如此。社会资本变量和社会环境变量对农民工工资水平没有显著影响。文章由此认为,农民工的工资是处于分割的二元劳动力市场一端,是高度市场化的,缺乏企业内部劳动力市场或晋升机制,也少受劳动力市场用工情况变化影响,没有地区性差异,是一个实实在在的、刚性的低工资。     

SPECIAL ISSUE： MIGRANT WORKERS IN THE COURSE OF URBANIZATON Wages for migrant workers in the Pearl River Delta： determining factors

本文通过对珠江三角洲农民工问卷调查资料的回归分析,试图检验在市场转型下的企业制度和社会环境对农民工工资的影响。研究发现,人力资本中的教育年限、本企业工龄等变量对农民工工资有显著的正向影响,年龄和性别也有显著影响;企业制度中的工种对工资有显著影响,表现出明显的等级性。企业所属行业、规模和企业性质对工资没有显著影响,是否签订劳动合同和缺工情况同样如此。社会资本变量和社会环境变量对农民工工资水平没有显著影响。文章由此认为,农民工的工资是处于分割的二元劳动力市场一端,是高度市场化的,缺乏企业内部劳动力市场或晋升机制,也少受劳动力市场用工情况变化影响,没有地区性差异,是一个实实在在的、刚性的低工资。     

Effects of US citizenship on wages of Asian immigrant women

The article presents a cross‐sectional study on the effects of US citizenship on wages of Asian immigrant women. The findings show that US citizenship positively moderated the relationship between sample characteristics and wages. Higher education (university and graduate school) significantly boosts the wage level of Asian immigrant women who have US citizenship. However, such positive influence does not exist for Asian immigrant women without US citizenship. This finding suggests that Asian immigrant women without US citizenship still face a glass ceiling. Key Practitioner Message: ● Educate immigrants about the importance of and potential benefits associated with citizenship.     

Analysis of China＇s Unequal Income Distribution from the Perspective of Functional Income Distribution

中国收入分配的不平等在很大程度上表现为功能性收入分配的不平等，即随着经济的发展，工资性收入占国民收入的比例越来越小，而现阶段中国二元经济结构下的无限劳动力供给则是其主要原因。在一个具有凯恩斯主义特征的非均衡动态模型框架下，我们的分析表明，劳动力的无限供给，不仅使工资无法对劳动力市场的供求状况进行反应，而且使劳动生产率和物价变化对工资的影响也不敏感。这意味着，当存在着劳动生产率的提高或由经济增长所带动的物价上涨时，工资的提高不够显著，从而由经济增长或劳动生产率的提高所带来的利益大部分转化为利润而非工资。基于此，要彻底扭转中国收入分配恶化趋势，根本途径仍然是保持经济的高速增长，加快工业化和城市化进程，从而使农村剩余劳动力能够尽快被吸收。     

社会分层与健康不平等的性别差异:基于生命历程的纵向分析

本研究考察在社会分层与性别分层的交互作用下,生命历程中的两个竞争性理论--“累积优势/劣势理论”和“年龄中和效应理论”,哪一个更能解释中国男性和女性所经历的健康不平等。本研究利用“中国健康与营养调查”（CHNS）追踪数据和成长曲线模型发现,性别对社会分层导致的健康不平等及其发展有独特的影响。与男性相比,女性在各个年龄阶段都处于健康劣势,这一劣势是因为女性从教育和收入所获得的健康回报比男性低。此外,女性之间因为教育和收入导致的健康不平等程度随年龄的增长而缩小,男性之间的健康不平等程度并不随年龄的增长而改变,因此,本研究不支持健康不平等的“累积优势/劣势假说”,而是在女性群体中支持“年龄中和效应理论”。     

Working poverty in Michigan, 1998/1999 and 2007/2008: Changes in the magnitudes and policy and socio-demographic determinants

Michigan has undergone enormous labor market changes since the 1990s affecting employment, income, and poverty. This paper examines changes in poverty among working families and their policy-related and socio-demographic determinants between 1998/1999 and 2007/2008 in Michigan. Findings suggest the rates of ‘poverty’ and ‘near poverty’ to be between 5 and 19% among working families, with slightly higher rates for the latter period. Public transfers combining taxes and means-tested supports, albeit making some impact among poor families with children, were unable to lower these rates. While the major socio-demographic characteristics of poverty and near poverty including large families with children and young, never married, single mother, and immigrant householders apply to working families, the roles of gender, race, marital status, and education manifest through many policy-related variables such as work hours, wages, and transfer incomes. These findings have important implications for understanding working poverty in Michigan and beyond.     

Gender inequality in human capital accumulation and economic growth: a comparative analysis of Pakistan and Sri Lanka

Even though the significance of human capital in the growth literature is well established, little evidence is available on the role of education on growth segregated on a gender basis. The present study has focused on the importance of female education and employment and queried to what extent gender inequality in education and employment has an impact on economic growth in Pakistan and Sri Lanka. To answer this question, a simultaneous equations model covering time period of 1975–2009 has been used and the Generalized Method of Moment (GMM) has been applied. The results have confirmed that the gender gap in education has induced an adverse impact on economic growth, both directly and indirectly, through rapid population growth and low investment. Results also show that though there is gender inequality in human capital accumulation in both counties but the intensity is higher in Pakistan as compared to Sri Lanka. The study explored the opportunities to encourage the role of females in the developmental activities of these countries. In view of the fact that gender inequality in education is critical for growth, the study recommends that rather than slashing the PSDP (Public Sector Development Program), Pakistan needs to promote investment in human capital and that there should be equal opportunity for education and employment for both males and females in both south Asian Countries.     

The Cost of Parenthood: Unraveling the Effects of Sexual Orientation and Gender on Income*

Objectives. Prior research has repeatedly shown that parenthood affects employment outcomes; mothers have, on average, lower wages and are less likely to be hired than childless women. Some research indicates that this effect of parenthood on employment outcomes is dependent on sexual orientation. In particular, lesbian mothers might be treated more like childless women by those making employment decisions. This article examines the degree to which the lesbian wage advantage can be explained by lesbians avoiding the motherhood wage penalty experienced by heterosexual women. Methods. Drawing on 2000 U.S. Census data, this issue is first explored via ordinary least squares regression equations that estimate the effect of having a child present in the household on income. The Blinder‐Oaxaca method is then employed to decompose the earnings differential between heterosexual and gay individuals. Results. Results indicate that lesbians appear to experience a motherhood advantage that increases their wages by approximately 20 percent. Further, results support the notion that lesbians receive different returns to the presence of children in the household than do heterosexual women. Approximately 35 percent of the wage differential between lesbians and heterosexual women is attributable to differences in returns to child rearing. Conclusion. These findings have relevance for state and federal anti‐discrimination laws and work/family policies, as they provide further insight into the role that gender, and gender‐based assumptions, play in determining employment outcomes.     

Market Transition and Gender Segregation in Urban China*

Objectives. This article analyzes the impact of the new form of economic segmentation, which emerged in urban China during the market transition, on gender segregation and earnings differentials. Methods. I compare both over‐time and across‐city change in gender segregation, and use a series of multi‐level cross‐classified models based on data at three levels: a 1995 national sample of individual workers, industry‐sector data for 1990 and 1995, and city‐level data for 1995. Results. Gender segregation by ownership sector has declined over time now that the state sector has become differentiated and its relative economic advantages wanes. Both earnings differentiation and gender segregation among industries have increased with marketization. In the most marketized cities, the earnings of workers of both sexes in jobs with high rates of female entry are penalized, indicating that marketization exacerbated the negative effect of job feminization on earnings. Conclusions. These findings lend support for the “queuing” perspective that a decline in jobs' relative wages leads to feminization. The making of the Chinese market economy has created a new set of institutional arrangements, which includes that between job feminization and wages.     

Import competition, employment and wages in U.S. manufacturing

This paper uses cointegration analysis to examine if employment and wages in the U.S. manufacturing sector exhibit any long run relationship with import competition. While overall the cointegration analysis supports the results reported in Revenga’s (1992) panel study it indicates that in the long run a positive correlation between import price and employment and/or a negative correlation between import price and wage are sector sensitive. There is also a considerable variation in the magnitude of employment and wage elasticities.     

Women's Wages: Cohort Differences in Returns to Education and Training Over Time*

Objective. This article examines the effects of education and work‐related training on wage‐growth trajectories for two cohorts of women as they aged from their early 20s and 30s into their early 30 s and 40 s. I test whether occupational training compensates for an earlier lack of education, thereby decreasing earnings inequality over time within cohorts. Because the broader economic context may influence the relationship between wages, education, and training, I test the assumption that the experiences of a given cohort may be generalized to others. Methods. Following NLS Young Women between 1977 and 1987 and NLSY79 Women between 1988 and 1998, growth‐curve analyses test whether returns to investments in human capital vary over time, across and within cohorts. Results. Women who did not update their skills over time experienced stagnation or declines in real wages, leading to growing wage inequality within education levels. However, women without a high school degree who engaged in on‐the‐job training experienced the greatest returns to training, thus reducing the initial education‐based wage gap. Conclusion. Education and training in adulthood can deflect the accumulation of disadvantage, but can also solidify an already uneven distribution of resources across social strata.     

Choosing fields of graduate study among Chinese and Taiwanese students

This study examines field of study patterns and their determinants among Chinese and Taiwanese students who come to the U.S. for the purpose of advancing their education. I argue that field of study choice is the result of both economic incentives as well as cultural and social values. Results suggest that funding from U.S. university sources channel Chinese and Taiwanese students into science- and technology-related fields. This study also suggests that choosing field is a gender-specific behavior that is affected by cultural and social values, as well as structural factors, such as educational policy. Despite the gender gap in choosing field of study, women from China are more likely to choose science- and technology-related fields than those from Taiwan. This may be the result of China’s central government’s claimed campaign for gender equality. Such an alleged campaign may have created perceived equality and confidence within women that encourage some women to enter male-dominated fields.     

中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异研究

一直以来,中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异逐渐缩小,最近甚至开始出现女性超过男性的趋势。利用“2008年中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2008）数据,本研究探讨中国城乡居民教育获得性别不平等的变化趋势,并着重检验影响教育获得的各主要因素是否存在性别差异。研究发现：第一,性别不平等存在城乡差异,农村户口居民的性别不平等程度高于非农户口居民;第二,父亲的职业地位指数（ISEI）或父母的受教育水平越低,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;第三,兄弟姐妹人数越多的群体,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;最后,不同教育层次入学机会的性别不平等程度也不相同,教育层次越低,升学机会的性别不平等越严重。笔者认为上述教育获得的性别不平等模式来源于不同的社会群体对父权制观念或传统性别角色观念的认同感的差异。     

The Labor Market Consequences of Childhood Maladjustment*

Objective. This article uses data from the National Child Development Survey on a cohort of individuals born in Great Britain during the first week of March 1958 to investigate whether educational attainment and labor force behavior 33 years later are affected by childhood behavioral problems that are exhibited at both age 7 and age 16. Method. Regression methods are used to test hypotheses concerning these effects. Results. Our results indicate that maladjusted children suffer economically when they reach adulthood. Maladjusted children perform worse on aptitude tests and have lower educational attainment. Maladjusted children also are less likely to be employed at age 33 and to have lower wages when employed. Part of the reduced employment and wages is the result of lower education, but part is also due to other factors. Conclusion. Future research should investigate whether adult labor market outcomes vary with the type of behavioral problems exhibited at younger ages.     

专业选择与初职获得的性别差异:基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”的发现

高等教育的扩张大大缩小了两性受教育程度的差距,年轻一代的女性接受大学教育的比例甚至超过了男性。研究高等教育横向分层维度对理解劳动力市场的性别不平等尤为必要。基于“首都大学生成长追踪调查”数据,本研究从大学专业隔离的角度入手,分析大学毕业生初职获得的性别差异。分析发现,首都高校存在明显的专业性别隔离：女生更多地集中在文学、历史、艺术等专业,而男生更多地集中在理工科类专业。大学专业对毕业后个体能否进入男性主导职业具有显著影响。相较于男性,女性进入男性主导职业的概率更低,在控制了专业后,这一差异显著降低。非线性Blinder-Oaxaca分解结果进一步显示,若男女在专业分布上没有差异,不同性别群体进入男性主导职业的概率差异会减少40%～50%。该发现对理解城市高等教育水平劳动力市场中职业性别隔离现象的形成机制具有重要意义。     

What drives unconventional political participation? A two level study

There is little evidence on the factors that drive peaceful unconventional political participation. This study evaluates the impact of seven individual level constituents – age, income, education, gender, satisfaction with the government, engagement in civil society organizations and voting – as well as five macro-level factors – economic development, democratic experience, income inequalities, a country's regime type and federalism – on citizens’ participation in boycotts, demonstrations and petition signing activities. Participation in all three protest activities hinges on education, voting, participation in civil society organizations, and lack of satisfaction with the government. Moreover, the influence of some macro-factors, such as democratic experience and economic development, and micro-level factors, such as gender differs between the three forms of political engagement.     

Household assets,school enrollment,and parental aspirations for children's education in rural China: Does gender matter?

Using rural household data from the China Household Income Project (CHIP) 2002, this article provides an analysis of different effects of household assets independent of family income on children's school enrollment and parental aspirations for education, examining both outcomes by children's gender. The study first compared the responsiveness of boys' and girls' enrollment with the improvement of household assets, measured as liquid assets and net worth, relative to family income. The multivariate regression analysis further detected the effects of household assets on both boys' and girls' school enrollment and parental aspirations for their future education. Statistical results show that, compared with family income, household assets matter more for girls' schooling than for boys'. In addition, household net worth was found to be significantly associated with parental aspirations for children's education regardless of gender. This study, albeit exploratory, sheds light on child welfare and education policies in rural China.     

Predictors of Cambodian parents’ perceptions of corporal punishment

This cross‐sectional study was conducted to examine the predictors of parents’ positive perceptions of using corporal punishment on their children. We investigated whether there is a gender difference in the use of corporal punishment according to parents’ gender and socioeconomic variables and what factors predict Cambodian parents’ positive perceptions of the use of corporal punishment toward sons and daughters. Cambodian parents hold different views on raising boys versus girls. Younger parents with more children, limited education, low socioeconomic status, unemployed, living in rural areas, and parents who hold positive perceptions of spousal abuse of women were more likely to approve of the use of corporal punishment. Our results present implications for social work practice and policy, particularly in child welfare in Cambodia. Most importantly, in order to prevent the use of corporal punishment on children in the home, the government of Cambodia as well as domestic and international organizations need to make more active efforts to promote parenting education.