教育民间组织在高等教育国际化中的作用及启示——以加拿大高等教育国际化发展为例

加拿大高等教育国际化的发展,证实了教育民间组织在高等教育国际化发展中的角色价值与推动作用。在我国高等教育国际化的进程中,应借鉴加拿大等发达国家高等教育的发展经验,针对高等教育发展中的实际问题,抓住"激发社会组织活力"及高校"去行政化"的改革机遇,通过立法,构建更开放的、更灵活的教育管理体制与机制,使更多具备社会性与国际性的教育民间组织积极参与推动,与世界共享无国界、无边界的教育资源,推动高等教育的国际化。     

“The liability of newness” revisited: Theoretical restatement and empirical testing in emergent organizations

The mismatch between Stinchcombe's original propositions regarding “the liability of newness” and subsequent attempts to test those propositions suggests to us that the form and causes of the liability remain open to further investigation. Taking organizational emergence as a process comprising entrepreneurs engaging in actions that produce outcomes, we propose hypotheses about the social mechanisms of organizational construction involved in investing resources, developing routines, and maintaining boundaries. Distinguishing between initial founding conditions versus subsequent activities, our results not only confirm the liability of newness hypothesis, but also reveal a much higher risk of failure in organizations' early lifetime than rates found in previous research. Moreover, our results highlight the importance of entrepreneurs' continuing effort after their initial organizing attempts. Whereas only a few initial founding conditions lower the risk of failure, subsequent entrepreneurial activities play a major role in keeping the venture alive. Entrepreneurs contribute to whether a venture survives through raising more resources, enacting routines, and gaining increased public recognition of organizational boundaries. After controlling for financial performance, our results still hold. Based on our analysis, we offer suggestions for theory and research on organizations and entrepreneurship.     

网络阶层:一个社会分层新视野的实证分析

网络阶层概念建立在社会分层和社会网络理论融合的基础之上,社会成员通过社会网络获取社会资源的能力和机会不同而在社会结构中呈现出高低有序的层次。社会网络资源的差异是分层的形成依据,社会资本量越高,社会成员越有可能出现在社会结构的上层。社会成员的网络阶层位置与网络规模、网顶和网络位差成正相关,而与网络中的亲属密度成负相关。社会成员的网络阶层位置越高,其社会流动的效果就会越好,就有更多的机会找到高收入的工作。网络阶层概念的提出丰富了社会网络和社会分层理论的内涵,为研究中国现实性问题提供了一个全新的维度。     

Jobs and skills: A multivariate structural approach

In this paper, we illustrate a multivariate structural approach to explaining inequalities in job skills. We argue that skill differences are produced by work structures operating at several levels of analysis, including organizations, occupations, technology, and unions. In addition, background characteristics of individuals are important for allocating men and women to positions in the technical division of labor. We derive measures of two dimensions of job skills (substantive complexity and autonomy) from questionnaires completed by 4567 workers, managers, and supervisors of 54 plants in 7 manufacturing industries in south-central Indiana. We supplement these questionnaire data with information on work structures obtained from interviews with key informants in each plant, which yielded information on the organizational and technological correlates of skill; and measures of occupational activities from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (3rd ed., U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC 1965). Our contextual models provide evidence that the different work structures have distinct impacts on the two dimensions of job skills.     

From institutional segmentation to market fragmentation: Institutional transformation and the shifting stratification order in urban China

Focusing on the changing roles of organizations, this study develops an institutional framework to examine the shifting stratification order since the mid-1990s in urban China. We argue that, after the mid-1990s, the Chinese state led a dual process of institutional transformation. On the one hand, the state dismantled the socialist redistributive system and broke down institutional segmentation based on organizational ownership and bureaucratic rank. On the other hand, the state developed different markets with various paces and strategies, resulting in fragmented market environments. In this context, reformed organizations interacted with heterogeneous market conditions to exert different impacts on multiple dimensions of social inequality. We draw empirical evidence from two national survey data collected in 1994 and 2003 during a critical period. Our findings show that the foundation of the stratification order has shifted from institutional segmentation to market fragmentation in urban China. This study calls for substantive institutional analysis to better understand the intricate landscape of social inequality in transitional economies.     

Some cross-population comparisons of family bias in the effects of schooling on occupational status

It is a truism of research on social stratification that the effects of socioeconomic or family background on educational attainment and adult success lead to biases in the simple regressions of occupational status (or other putative outcomes of schooling) on educational attainment. The present analysis compares findings of family bias in the effects of schooling on occupational status across samples of siblings drawn from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study and from Olneck's sample of brothers from Kalamazoo, Michigan. The comparative analysis shows that family bias in the effect of schooling on occupational status may be much less than is commonly believed and that very large samples may be needed to measure it reliably. Moreover, the analysis suggests that estimates of family bias are very sensitive to the specification of response variability in schooling. The analysis also illustrates some useful methods for cross-population comparison of structural equation models.     

The paradox of de-coupling: A study of flexible work program and workers’ productivity

Organizational de-coupling occurs when organizational adoption of programs is separated from ongoing activities. Neo-institutional theory asserts it is an effective coping strategy for modern organizations to deal with increasingly elaborated environments. In this paper, we investigate the consequences of organizational de-coupling from an inward-looking within organizational perspective. Specifically, we study how the de-coupling of flexible work program affects workers’ actualization of productivity. Our data analysis suggests that the organizational de-coupling, in which organizations only ceremonially adopt flexible work program without making it available to all workers, is detrimental to the actualization of productivity for workers who were bereft of the opportunity. In contrast, we find that the highest level of productivity actualization is associated with workers who enjoy a factual flexible work schedule which is nevertheless not formally adopted by the employer. The implications of the findings are discussed.     

Job-shift differences between men and women in the workplace

Until now causal analyses of male-female career differences have been based on the standard attainment model and have focused on differences in career outcomes, namely status and earnings. This paper departs from this practice by using the career life-cycle model of achievement as a framework for the analysis of sex differences in the job mobility experiences of management personnel of a large corporation. The paper focuses not on sexual differences in the level of career rewards, but on differences in the rate of job shifts as the career unfolds. The models are based on the mean-value function of a Poisson arrival process. The principal findings are: (1) Male and female job-shift regimes are similar in form and described by the mean-value function of a nonstationary and heterogeneous Poisson arrival process; (2) the parameters governing male and female job-shift regimes are significantly different; (3) parameter differences indicate sexual inequities with respect to the rate of return to productive resources, but not with respect to structural opportunities to shift; (4) for men and women alike, schooling increases the rate of job shift, while labor force experience prior to being hired and entry-level achievement decrease the rate of shift.     

“地缘维权”组织与农民工的权益保障——基于对福建泉州农民工维权组织的考察

维护农民工权益的现行策略难以切实发挥有效作用,维权困境的根源在于农民工缺乏真正代表自身利益的组织。“以地缘为纽带的维权组织”的出现说明了农民工对于组织资源的渴望,这种维权方式有其特点与功能,同时也存在局限。建立正式的、合法的、以地缘为纽带的农民工维权组织,是维护和保障农民工权益的可能之举,政府应采取有效措施给予恰当的引导,以使其健康发展。     

Organizational ecology of immigrant employment and organizational buffer zones: Who leaves first when the organization gets into trouble?

Using data from the German social insurance system immigrant employment in organizational buffer zones will be investigated from an organizational ecology perspective. Theories in organization and labor market research predict higher exit rates of employees holding jobs in buffer zones. These buffer zones protect organizations from unfavorable environmental turbulences. Consequently, analyzing the impact of buffer zone employment on job stability of immigrants requires a fully dynamic approach, which goes beyond a mere identification of generally increased turnover rates of immigrants.In the first step, determinants of organizational dissolution rates will be estimated. In order to obtain a dynamic measurement of unfavorable environmental conditions, the model includes both organizational and time-varying environmental characteristics of organizational populations. This will be done by using a three-level mixed-effects hazard model controlling for observed and unobserved environmental characteristics. In the second step, dissolution rates predicted in the first step will be used as an explanatory variable. These rates indicate the degree of enactment of the flexible buffer zone. It will be shown that immigrants have indeed higher turnover rates, but they tend to remain longer in their organizations when environmental conditions deteriorate—and they are not those who leave first when the organization gets into trouble.     

Legitimation, Geographical Scale, and Organizational Density: Regional Patterns of Foundings of American Automobile Producers, 1885–1981

Do organizational processes of legitimation and competition operate within different boundaries corresponding to different geographical levels of analysis? Following Hannan et al. (1995), this analysis explores the possibility that legitimation operates on a broader geographical scale (less constrained by political and physical barriers) than does competition. We test the argument by examining founding rates of American automobile producers from 1885 to 1981, within the framework of density-dependent modeling. Our findings suggest that within the United States, legitimation operated on a national scale while competition proceeded primarily on a regional level. Comparison with automobile producer populations in Europe yields differences in application and interpretation of the theory.     

Internal labor markets, promotions, and worker skill: An indirect test of skill ILMs

The determinants of intrafirm mobility within the internal labor markets (ILMs) of one large, regional bank and one small town bank are examined. The literature on the banking industry suggests that internal labor markets exist there, and that job changes within these markets are based on the development of skill rather than on seniority. It is suggested that in skill ILMs, promotions will be a positive function of the employees' duration in the present job; while in a seniority-based ILM, promotions will be a positive function of tenure with the firm prior to the present job. These findings, for men but not women, support the hypothesis that skill rather than seniority-based ILMs are present in each bank. The findings for women suggest that they work in “firm” or secondary labor markets. While the two banks are similar in the way other factors determine mobility, differences are also found which may be explained by the size and sectoral location of each bank.     

Dynamic models and attainment in the workplace

The two most marked trends in recent stratification studies are: (1) the shift away from a statical approach to attainment and toward a dynamical representation of achievement, and (2) the shift away from the assumption that achievement is largely a matter of individual characteristics, and toward the view that achievement is the outcome of an employer-employee exchange of productive resources for earnings and status. This paper forges a link between these parallel trends by elaborating on previous formulations of dynamic models of achievement and applying the results to the analysis of earnings attainment in an internal labor market. The modeling section of the paper joins within a single framework the growing interest in ascertaining how a given structure of opportunity shapes achievement and in determining the different points in the career line at which individual background and resource variables impact attainment. Special attention is devoted to the problems facing researchers who wish to bring a dynamic conceptualization of achievement to cross-sectional or otherwise deficient data. Although the empirical application of the various models is largely meant to be illustrative, it is of interest in its own right because it goes substantially beyond previous efforts in this area.     

Differential effects of industrial and worker resources on women's wages

A developing body of literature within the sociological examination of income equality has established the significance of industrial and worker resources in the determination of wages. However, there is little available information regarding the uniformity of their effects across different types of workers. This paper attempts to specify the ways in which various resources affect the wage rates of several categories of women workers. The major thesis is that resources produce differential payoffs depending on the location of the worker on various dimensions of stratification. Wage determination among women is hypothesized to vary by age, race, and occupational group. Hypotheses concerning the relative effects of worker and industrial resources on two age groups of black and white women in blue-collar and white-collar occupations are tested. Data from the National Longitudinal Studies of the Labor Market Experiences of Women are used to test models of wage determination among these different groups of women workers. In general, our results suggest that stratification is an important mechanism linking resources to wages and should be incorporated into the resource perspective of labor outcomes.     

Wage change in the late career: A model for the outcomes of job sequences

This paper elaborates a model for the outcomes of job sequences and illustrates its utility by an empirical analysis of the determinants of wage change for men in their late careers. We argue that job sequences represent the basic components of careers and that a focus on these sequences is useful for explaining the determinants of socioeconomic inequality over the life cycle. Our model permits us to estimate the effects on wage change of a wide array of personal resources and measures of the opportunity structure. We further assess how these types of factors differentially affect wage change for various patterns of labor market behavior and for blacks vs whites. Our empirical analysis of data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Middle-Aged Men suggests the importance of patterns of job sequences for wage change and for the explanation of racial differentials in career advancement.     

Stratification in college entry and completion

This paper examines stratification of opportunities in college access and completion. Using propensity score methods, we investigate two comparisons: (1) four- versus two-year public colleges and (2) private versus public two-year colleges. While previous research finds lower degree completion in two-year than in four-year public colleges, the comparability of students is doubtful. This paper re-considers the public four-year college effect, but for similar students and additional relevant outcomes. The second comparison is a new one. Though recruiting similar students as public two-year colleges, private two-year colleges use different organizational procedures, and we find that they have a different impact on comparable students’ degree completion. We speculate about the reasons for these differences and whether they suggest potential benefits of adapting these procedures for public two-year colleges.     

Unemployment and men's entrance into female-dominated jobs

Despite the contraction of many male-dominated occupations, men have made limited progress in entering female-dominated jobs. Using monthly employment histories from the SIPP, we examine whether individual economic conditions—such as a period of unemployment—are associated with men subsequently pursuing female-dominated work. Specifically, we ask whether men are more likely to enter female-dominated jobs after unemployment, compared to men who take a new job directly from employment. We find that unemployment significantly increases the odds of men entering female-dominated work among men who make job transitions. By examining changes in occupational prestige as well as wage differences before and after unemployment, we also find that entering a female-dominated job (compared to other job types) may help men mitigate common scarring effects of unemployment such as wage losses and occupational prestige downgrades. Accordingly, this study reveals a critical occupational route that may allow men to remain upwardly mobile after involuntary unemployment.     

Interorganizational resource networks: Formal patterns of overlap

In this paper, we analyze an interorganizational resource network involving three resources—information, money, and support-and a broad range of 73 organizations in a medium size American community. Mutuality is strongest for information flows, and weakest for money flows. “Multiplex” patternings—flows of two media in the same direction—are found for all three pairs of resources, while “exchange” effects—flows of two media in opposite directions—involving information and money, and information and support, but not money and support, are also indicated. Moreover, the tendencies toward symmetry in the information and support networks are accentuated in the presence of one another. The analysis suggests that information flows play a crucial role in conditioning the flows of the other resources, and that they may be a precondition to the establishment of more elaborate interorganizational networks.     

香港绿色团体的贡献

自1980年初、非政府组织之环保团体相继成立,此等团体虽有保护环境同一目的,但他们的信念、工作重点及资源各有不同,而环境教育工作更是各团体共同关注的事。此等团体在当时之出现显示世界性对环境之关注正引起香港社会的注意。此篇文章主要描述四个较突出之环保团体在环境教育之不同贡献,他们不同之工作促进了香港社会对环境教育不同之理解。     

Industrial organization,economic conditions,and the labor market success of young men: An overview and extension

The relationship between workplace organization and socioeconomic attainments of workers, although an issue of some currency in contemporary stratification research, is complex and as yet not well understood. In contrast to dual economic theory, this paper attempts to sort out the separate effects of various components of the social organization of production on job rewards by adopting an explicit multidimensional approach to the conceptualization and measurement of organizational structure. Moreover, various considerations suggest that these structural impacts vary with business cycle activity. Accordingly, one of the research aims is to examine the extent to which various dimensions of organizational structure serve to differentially insulate workers from wage stagnation as economic conditions deteriorate. Finally, because firms may devise different institutional responses to declining product demand, these structural effects on both wage rates and unemployment propensities are examined.