Employment‐Housing Paradigm of Internal Migration: Evidence from Norway

In a previous article (Portnov, 1999), the employment‐housing paradigm of interregional migration was introduced. According to this paradigm, different patterns of employment‐housing change in various geographic areas are likely to result in three different migration events – predominant in migration, out‐migration or “migration neutrality”. The latter is considered as a state of equilibrium in which a region or community neither gains nor loses its population in migration exchanges with other areas. Using preconditions for such migration neutrality as a “reference line”, planners and decision‐makers can determine regional policies aimed at a more balanced distribution of a country's population through generating a “migration push” in overpopulated regions and encouraging inward migration to development areas in which population growth is desirable. In the present article, the validity of this concept is tested using 1970‐89 statistical data for 430 municipalities in Norway. It appeared feasible to separate the band of migration neutrality from other migration cases and establish the quantitative thresholds of employment‐housing change that are conducive to the occurrence of different migration events – migration neutrality, in‐migration and out‐migration.     

Migration and motivation: the migrant's perspective

Migration is often viewed as economically motivated. However, many of the studies on which this is based are a result of either aggregate data or retrospective questioning of migrants. The present study indicates that such approaches may give a distorted view of migrants' motives. The data indicate that nonmonetary career reasons are important instigators of migration among well-educated international migrants. In addition, these factors tend to be major perceived gains from migration. However, choice of destination is strongly influenced by location of friends and/or relatives. Reasons for discrepancies between this and previous studies are noted.     

Collective versus mass behavior: a conceptual framework for temporary and permanent migration in Western Europe and the United States

"Present theories treat migration as one basic movement. [In the present paper,] conceptualization of economic migration as collective rather than mass behavior has been proposed to overcome present theoretical inadequacies and facilitate empirical analyses. Permanent migration has been correctly regarded as statistically aggregated, institutionalized behavior. Temporary international labor migration is, however, a different phenomenon--one that is more accurately portrayed as a collective product. It is the culmination of nontraditional interactions between three major groups: the migrants, their employers and host nation-states. The development of collective behavior, including a noninstitutionalized role of the state, may be illustrated by Western European guestworkers and United States illegal aliens. Advantages of the conceptualization include easier cross-cultural comparisons, guidelines for predictability and recognition of the dual role of the state as both major actor in the migration process and social control agent."     

Philippine migration policy: dilemmas of a crisis

Philippine migration policy is traced from the early 1970s to the present. The main migration trends in the 1990s are described. An assessment is made of the efficacy and appropriateness of present migration policy in light of the economic crisis. A regional approach to migration policy is necessary in order to encourage placing migration as a greater priority on national agendas and in bilateral agreements. In the Philippines, migrants are considered better paid workers, which diminishes their importance as a legislative or program priority. Santo Tomas (1998) conducted an empirical assessment of migration policies in the Philippines, but refinement is needed. Although migration is a transnational experience, there is little dialogue and cooperation among countries. Philippine migration policy defines its role as an information resource for migrants. Policy shifted from labor export to migrant management in the public and private sectors. Predeparture information program studies are recommending a multi-stage process that would involve all appropriate parties. There is talk of including migration information in the education curriculum. There are a variety of agendas, competing interests, and information resources between migration networks and officiating agencies. The Asian financial crisis may have a mild impact, but there are still issues of reintegration, protection, and employment conditions     

Does Circular Migration Lead to “Guest Worker” Outcomes?

At first at the level of the European Commission, and increasingly also in the European Union’s member states, it is being recognized that past labour migration management tools have more or less serious drawbacks in that they produce undesired outcomes and do not sufficiently attain the objectives for which they were designed. The welfare states of north‐western Europe are discovering that their desire of the past three decades to restrict labour immigration as much as possible is no longer “in sync” with changing labour market demands, which are growing both for the highly skilled and the unskilled. In order to satisfy the demand for unskilled labour, schemes are being proposed that would allow for circular migration. The European Commission is a forceful promoter of these schemes. Member states such as the Netherlands, which we take as a case in point, are also considering modes by which to allow temporary unskilled labour migration, but seem intent on employing regulatory tools that are not very different from those used in the “guest worker” era, which brought about large‐scale settlement. Up to the present time, the resulting ethnic minority groups are the subject of large integration efforts on the part of the receiving states. This begs the question of the extent to which “circular migration” would be different from “guest worker” schemes, in its management and its outcomes.     

The Migration–Development Nexus Evidence and Policy Options State–of–the–Art Overview

In September 2001, the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs commissioned a study of the present and potential links between migration and development. In January 2002, the new Danish Government announced a decision to enhance the links between its aid and refugee policies as part of the overall focus on poverty reduction. The present paper provides a state–of–the–art overview of current thinking and available evidence on the migration–development nexus, including the role of aid in migrant–producing areas. It offers evidence and conclusions around the following four critical issues: Poverty and migration People in developing countries require resources and connections to engage in international migration. There is no direct link between poverty, economic development, population growth, and social and political change on the one hand, and international migration on the other. Poverty reduction is not in itself a migration–reducing strategy. Conflicts, refugees, and migration Violent conflicts produce displaced persons, migrants, and refugees. People on the move may contribute both to conflict prevention and reconciliation, and to sustained conflicts. Most refugees do not have the resources to move beyond neighbouring areas, that is, they remain internally displaced or move across borders to first countries of asylum within their region. Aid to developing countries receiving large inflows of refugees is poverty–oriented to the extent that these are poor countries, but it is uncertain what effect such aid has in terms of reducing the number of people seeking asylum in developed countries. Furthermore, such aid may attract refugees from adjacent countries experiencing war or political turmoil. Migrants as a development resource International liberalization has gone far with respect to capital, goods and services, but not to labour. International political–economic regimes provide neither space nor initiatives for negotiations on labour mobility and the flow of remittances. There is a pressing need to reinforce the image of migrants as a development resource. Remittances are double the size of aid and target the poor at least as well; migrant diasporas are engaged in transnational practices with direct effects on aid and development; developed countries recognize their dependence on immigrant labour; and policies on development aid, humanitarian relief, migration, and refugee protection are internally inconsistent and occasionally contradictory. Aid and migration Aid policies face a critical challenge to balance a focus on poverty reduction with mitigating the conditions that produce refugees, while also interacting constructively with migrant diasporas and their transnational practices. The current emphasis on aid selectivity tends to allocate development aid to the well performing countries, and humanitarian assistance to the crisis countries and trouble spots. However, development aid is more effective than humanitarian assistance in preventing violent conflicts, promoting reconciliation and democratization, and encouraging poverty–reducing development investments by migrant diasporas. The paper is a synthesis of current knowledge of migration–development dynamics, including an assessment of the intended and unintended consequences of development and humanitarian policy interventions. We examine whether recent developments in the sphere of international migration provide evidence of a “crisis”, as well as the connections between migration, globalization, and the changing nature of conflicts. We summarize current thinking on the main issues at stake and examine available evidence on the relations between migration and development. Then the consequent challenges to the aid community, including the current debates about coherence and selectivity in aid and relief are discussed and, finally, we elaborate on the four conclusions of the overview.     

Migration between the United States and Canada: a study of labour market adjustment

"... The main purpose of this study is to examine population flows between Canada and the United States [from mid-1947 to mid-1972] in order to investigate the degree to which labour market adjustment is aided by such movements. [The author considers] several functional forms of the migration relationship in an attempt to empirically determine how the decision to migrate is formed. [He also compares the] results with those obtained by Courchene...for Canadian interprovincial migration in an effort to compare the effects of international and internal migration on labour market adjustment." It is found that "migration between the United States and Canada over the post-war period is an economic variable. In fact, [a] simple model employing differences in income levels and unemployment rates has been able to explain nearly ninety-five per cent of the variation in the migration rate." The author also notes that "although migration between Canada and the United States does occur in such a way as to aid labour market adjustment, it is not as efficient as internal migration." (summary in FRE, SPA)     

The world economy and contemporary migration

While not enough is known about international proletarian diasporas to be able to say much about their present or future behaviors, it is clear that they are closely tied to the key problems of the world today: establishing greater equality between and within societies and doing so under conditions of cultural pluralism that is no longer based on exploitation and domination, but on grounds which lead to a mutual enrichment of social life in both sending and receiving countries. The agenda for future research is to examine these issues in detail, cross-nationally and comparatively. For example, we must study the strategies involved in such migration variations as "commuting," "trial" migration, and "visiting," and what implications these apparently widespread practices have for the receiving societies, as well as the moral obligations of these societies, which have developed historically on the basis of labor provided by immigration and continue to depend for capital accumulation and economic growth on the availability of imported laboring hands. Nevertheless, if economic recovery in the advanced nations should continue to lag, if there are new recessions, or if dramatic improvements in employment opportunities in developing countries fail to materialize, migration across international boundaries may become even more volatile. Since the political, economic, and ethical questions which migration poses for both sending and receiving societies have become potentially explosive issues, it is imperative that they be debated and coherent and appropriate guidelines established.     

Migration transition in small Northern and Eastern Caribbean states

1 area of intra-Caribbean migration that has been overlooked is the "migration transition"--the transformation of rapidly modernizing societies from net labor exporters to net labor importers. This article assembles 8 case studies to 1) briefly present a spectrum of migration experiences in the Caribbean, 2) uncover some transitions under way, 3) pinpoint the forces that underlie the migration transition, and 4) point out some of the more important policy implications of labor migration reversals. The 8 island societies sampled for illustration purposes include 1) the Bahamas and the US Virgin Islands as post-migration transition societies (Zelinsky's advanced society), 2) the British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands as undergoing transition (Zelinsky's late transitional society), and 3) Anguilla, St. Kitts-Nevis, Turks and Caicos, and Montserrat as premigration transition societies (Zelinsky's early transitional society). Population data for the islands were derived primarily from the West Indian censuses and government statistics. These 8 historical sketches reveal certain commonalities. All are at various stages in a long-term economic restructuring to displace traditional staple crops with more income elastic, high value export services. In such societies, population growth and progress along the migration transition is an increasing function of this kind of successful export substitution. In addition, along the migration and economic transitions, such insular economies exhibit a relatively large public sector (20-30% of all activity), declining unemployment, increasing fiscal autonomy, and are committed to a development strategy remarkably similar to the "successful" model of the Bahamas and the US Virgin Islands. Cursory evidence suggests that, because of intersectoral competition for land and labor, there is an inverse relationship between farm effort/manufacturing employment and tourism intensity. This review suggests that small islands undergoing rapid growth imperatives also experience a similar set of self-reinforcing socioeconomic and environmental imbalances. Particularly for post-transition and transition societies, these spillovers include increasing real estate speculation and inflation because of tourism and the allied development of retirement colonies of affluent North Americans, wage pressures and skilled manpower shortages, and increasing vulnerability to international business cycles.     

Emigration dynamics in Pakistan

This study of emigration dynamics in Pakistan focuses on Pakistan's position as one of the world's leading manpower exporters. The study opens with a review of the history of international labor from the subcontinent. The second section looks at the problems with the collection of data on international migration and then considers the volume of international migration, migrant destinations, return migration, undocumented migration, and the stock of migrant workers abroad. The third section describes the economic and demographic context for overseas migration through a consideration of gross national product and the remittances of migrant workers, growth in gross domestic product, poverty and income distribution, the state of the population, labor force and employment, a profile of migrant workers, and the government's employment policy. The political and social context for overseas migration is the topic of the next section, and the discussion centers on emigration policy, institutional arrangements for manpower export and the welfare of migrants, and the economic resettlement of return migrants. Consideration of the future trends in international migration from Pakistan focuses on the cyclic nature of overseas labor migration, the existence of networks to facilitate such migration, uneven distribution of enabling resources in Pakistan, the paucity of available data, and governmental/cultural factors that promote and restrict such migration. It is concluded that both individual Pakistanis and the government consider overseas migration a positive force but that a reliance on such an ad hoc measure has costs that have not been considered by Pakistan's policy-makers.     

New Modes of Governance in the External Dimension of EU Migration Policy

Against the background of the limited “hard” law measures in place on external migration, the EU institutions are attempting to use a more differentiated approach to migration. This is evidenced by both the Stockholm Programme and the Global Approach to Migration (2005) which rely less on binding instruments and more on flexible, coordinated measures to meet their goals. This article discusses whether these measures can be understood as “new modes of governance” (NMG), which have only rarely been discussed insofar as the external sphere of EU governance is concerned. The article will also investigate the extent to which the initiatives are already in place, contextualising them in the broader debates on new governance and the conduct of the internal and external dimensions of the EU's system of governance. The article concludes that new modes of governance are indeed present in the external dimension of EU migration policy and that understanding them as such helps towards a better understanding of the contemporary state of policymaking at EU level.     

On interrelations between internal and international migration

International migration represents just one type of spatial population mobility, along with inter‐regional, rural‐urban, or intra‐urban migration. The possible connections among various forms of migration are, however, only rarely traced in the professional literature on the political and social determinants as well as consequences of international migration. Against this background, an attempt is made in the present paper to identify possible associations between internal and international migration in the case of Poland.     

Agricultural development and emigration: rhetoric and reality

"The untested premise of trade liberalizing U.S. development programs such as the Caribbean Basin Initiative is that commodity trade can substitute for international labor migration. Analysis of U.S. tomato producing regions in Sinaloa, Mexico and Florida suggests that the effect of trade liberalization on international labor migration is uncertain." The emphasis is on how such development projects might affect the flow of illegal migrants to the United States.     

Mediterranean thinking in migration studies: A methodological regionalism approach

The core reflection of this article is to explore the potential of using the Mediterranean as a category of analysis for migration studies, what epistemological and ontological effects this may have and how this could be done. To better capture this focus, I will speak about Med-Thinking. This Mediterranean scale of analysis invites us to follow methodological regionalism. In practice, this means that we need to encourage scholars to channel their findings towards the development of a Mediterranean approach. To develop an integrative and reflexive regional approach, I will first point out the background premises of such a normative effort and second, I will present the main analytical tools framing this Med-Thinking approach by articulating four main dimensions: epistemic solipsism, holism, homeostatic and positive thinking on migration. In the end, I will suggest some paths to promote the continued application of the Med-Thinking approach for the development of Mediterranean migration studies.     

Transcending Borders,Bridging Gaps: Opening a Dialogue Between the U. S. A. and Italy’s Migration Turn

ABSTRACT

This essay discusses recent theoretical engagements in the fields of migration and postcolonial studies in Italy by examining their contribution to American and transatlantic studies. It focuses on cultural critiques and manifestations which seek an interrogation or revitalization of Italy’s cultural identity. The analysis draws on the many links between past and present, a confrontation of the histories of migration from and to the country. For instance, the Italian/American influence is remarkable on transforming views of Italian identity, particularly regarding (im)migration. The objective of this paper is twofold. On the one hand, it examines how artistic productions compel the Italian society to come to terms with the past. This phenomenon attests to a unique social and cultural transition in Italy, and represents a breeding research ground within Italian studies and the Anglo-dominated area of postcolonial and diaspora studies. On the other hand, the essay investigates how these changes enhance to the role of transatlantic migrations. In doing so, the significance of such cultural productions is framed within ongoing epistemological and scholarly endeavours. This is exemplified by the abundant number of publications, seminars, conferences and new curricula challenging, as well as advancing, contemporary debates on migration, multiculturalism, identity (Italian-ness) and memory.     

Best Practice in Temporary Labour Migration for Development: A Perspective from Asia and the Pacific

The dominant mode of international migration in Asia and the Pacific is temporary contract migration of low‐skilled workers. The potential for such migration to deliver significant development dividends to origin communities is substantial because of its large scale and the fact that most migrant workers return to their home community. However, there are a number of barriers that are intervening to dampen these potential positive effects, such as high transaction costs, high costs of sending remittances, and the fact that some areas of origin lack the infrastructure and potential for productive investment. Moreover, destination countries have been very welcoming of high skill temporary migrants but highly restrictive in their attitudes toward their low skill counterparts. This paper discusses the lessons of best practice in temporary labour migration programmes in the region, which can help to overcome these obstacles reducing the positive development impacts of migration. It assesses, in turn, best practice separately for each stage of the labour migration process ‐‐ recruitment and selection, and pre‐departure preparation ‐‐ at the destination and on return. In conclusion, a number of the barriers which impinge on Asian Pacific countries’ ability to introduce and sustain best practice are discussed. These include the need for capacity building, lack of cooperation between origin and destination countries, lack of data, poor governance of labour migration a failure among governments to recognise the significance of migration and the need for more “development friendly” migration policies in destinations.     

The effects of migration on the establishment of networks: caste disintegration and reformation among the Indians of Fiji

"This article focuses on how migration auspices affect the formation of migrant networks and ethnic communities. Using ethnographic data and migration histories to focus on caste ?reformation' in the subcommunities of the Indians of Fiji, the ability to reestablish and maintain subcaste group ?extensions' in Fiji is shown as directly related to the migration auspices that originally established the community. By determining the characteristics of migrants, the reason for migrating, and the magnitude and duration of migration streams, migration auspices define a migration type. This migration type affects the strength and density of social ties present in migration streams. It also affects the strength and density of network ties that members of a migrant community can establish in a receiving society."     

Shifts in Grenadian migration: an historical perspective

Migration from Grenada has been varied and large over the past century, reaching levels which even resulted in negative population growth. This article focuses on changes in Grenadian migration over the past 80 years, with emphasis on the Grenada Revolution, 1979-1983. After the 1979 revolution there were some changes in the attitudes of Grenadians to migration, although many of the expected socioeconomic and demographic features of migration were still present. Migration may be seen as a means of circumventing low wages and limited opportunities, as a culturally specific pattern of behavior, or as a combination of economic, political and cultural factors. After reviewing the pattern of Grenadian migration over the past 80 years, some of the causes of and attitudes to migration are examined, and the meaning of migration for Grenadians is discussed.     

Undocumented migrants in Greece: issues of regularization

This article studies migration from Albania into Greece and schematically looks at the socio-economic integration and/or exclusion of Albanians.
It explores the issue of regularization: first, providing an explanation for the choices made by a government by using a simple game-theoretic framework and, second, it outlines the current efforts made towards regularization of undocumented migrants in Greece.
The game-theoretic example shows that, under certain conditions, the optimal policy for a government is not to legalize an illegal immigrant, whereas under different conditions the optimal policy is to regularize. These conditions relate to factors such as the relative magnitude of the government's payoffs which are in turn dependent on public opinion, lobbying activities, the presence of migrants' associations and the like.
The article then reviews the case of Greece, where initially migrant workers were not regularized whereas at present there exists a new legal framework for their regularization.
The character of Albanian migration into Greece reflects two things: the changing global nature of international migration and the way in which migrants in Southern Europe are embedded in the specific model of Southern European post-industrial society.


     

Religiously Motivated Migration

Self‐interested motives are typically assumed when addressing migration causation. However, values, such as those from religion, can also motivate migration. This study develops a theoretical framework of religiously motivated migration. Inasmuch as values are derived from and reinforced within groups, religions with strong cohesion are more likely to act on one of three value‐based religious migration motivations: sacred command, context conducive for religious practice, and awareness of potential membership losses from competition. This theoretical framework is demonstrated through Amish‐Mennonite migration. Generalizability is suggested from a brief review of the Puritans, Jews, Muslims, Mormons, and Russian Mennonites.