Intergenerational Mobility Modes and Changes in Social Class in Contemporary China

Using data from three China General Social Surveys, this paper analyzes changes in the basic situation of intergenerational mobility among social classes in China over the past 60 years. General social mobility was found to have increased, but social openness tended to show a wave-like pattern of change. Despite this, intergenerational inheritance was the main form of intergenerational mobility in every period. With the transformation of the socioeconomic system, the main mechanism of social exclusion changed from “systemic exclusion” to “market exclusion,” leading to changes in the structure of social opportunity. As a result, the form taken by intergenerational mobility varied significantly. This is chiefly evident in the gradual decline in the dominance of intergenerational inheritance among particular strata, with cross-class cyclical mobility becoming more difficult. On the one hand, changes in the social exclusion mechanism may increase social openness, making society more dynamic and strengthening social legitimacy. On the other hand, as the dominant class learns how to use market exclusion to achieve class reproduction, class solidification may still be possible in a future Chinese society.     

关系网效力的边界:来自新兴劳动力市场的实证分析

社会网络是影响社会经济行动及其结果的重要因素。作为社会网络的一种类型,关系网植根于中国文化并广泛渗透于经济和社会生活的各个领域。根据对城市求职者所作的深度访谈,本文着重探讨在劳动力市场改革的制度背景下,求职者使用关系网对其就业过程产生的效力,并分析该效力的影响边界及其理论含义。研究发现,随着市场改革的深入,关系网在就业过程中仍然发挥着显著作用,但是,其效力受到工作单位的所有制性质、劳动力市场的竞争程度,以及岗位的技能要求等因素的影响;关系网的效力边界与转型社会的制度安排密不可分;中国社会的“关系网”概念比西方学界研究的“社会网”概念具有更丰富的内涵。     

人力资本、劳动力市场分割与收入分配

关于收入不平等的解释,学界有个人主义和结构主义两种理论取向。笔者整合两种理论解释,同时考虑人力资本和劳动力市场结构,以及两者之间的交互效应,提出一个影响收入分配的基本模型。用“中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2003）数据对这一模型的检验表明,人力资本是决定收入分配的主要因素,但市场部门对劳动力的分割所产生的影响也不可忽视;人力资本和市场部门之间存在交互作用,人力资本越多的劳动力越容易进入国有部门（垄断或非垄断）;同时,国有部门（垄断或非垄断）也能为内部劳动力提供更多提升人力资本的机会。     

二元分割体制下城镇劳动力市场中的工作流动及其收入效应

基于中国家庭追踪调查两期数据（CFPS 2010、2012）和动态研究视角,本文系统分析和讨论了当今体制二元分割下的劳动力市场状况,以及由此产生的工作流动的发生机制及其经济后果,提出体制分割成为影响劳动力市场机会结构和经济后果不平等的重要集体性中介因素。体制对工作流动产生了三方面的影响：体制的稳定性效应,即为其成员提供内部庇护,从而降低体制内工作流动率;体制的收入效应,即与体制外流动相比,体制内工作流动会导致更高的收入增长;体制的壁垒效应,即体制阻止和排斥体制外的劳动力发生跨体制流动,从而影响工作流动的方向。经过使用倾向值匹配、IPTW等统计技术控制样本选择性后,分析结果显示,体制分割的这三方面效应均呈显著影响,且结果稳健。本文将体制分割与工作流动过程相结合,探讨体制对劳动力市场分割的动态作用,有助于更全面地理解当前劳动力市场中的分层与流动现状。     

建立中国市场经济模式的理论思考

通过对市场经济模式的成因分析,文章提出任何一个国家必须根据本国特定的可能性空间来选择市场经济模式的观点。由此提出中国建立社会主义市场经济,在模式选择上的对策建议一是中国市场经济必须具备的体制特征,包括主体结构特征、制度结构特征、组织结构特征、政府职能特征和所有制结构特征。二是社会主义市场经济模式应具有的特点,包括市场在资源配置中起基础性作用;形成全国统一的、健全的、开放的市场体系;在所有制结构和产品分配上体现社会主义特征;政府在市场经济中扮演重要角色。     

职业特征对中国城镇就业人员收入差别的影响(英文)

职业是决定就业人员劳动收入,继而影响居民收入差距程度的重要变量。本文利用国家统计局2005年全国1％人口抽样调查数据中的子样本,对职业与收入差别之间的关系做了经验分析,结果发现职业间收入差距可以解释城镇就业人员收入总体差距的12-17％。造成这种差别的主要原因有二：一是由于各职业对就业人员人力资本上的要求有差异,从而导致了职业间劳动要素报酬上的差异;二是劳动力市场、地区分割所带来的不同职业问人员自由流动的障碍,造成了这种收入差别。前一种原因强调了人力资本的作用,这应当是市场化改革的积极成效;而后一种原因反映的却是现阶段的市场化改革还不彻底。因此,为了缩小职业间不合理的收入差距,我们还应进一步深化改革,尽可能地排除由于市场、地区分割造成的不同职业间人员自由流动的障碍。     

论分享价值原则的文化战略学意义--十八届三中全会《决定》的理论解读

在“五位一体”框架中，探讨支撑国家整体发展战略的基本价值原则，乃是当代中国化马克思主义文化战略学的重要课题之一。中共十八届三中全会《决定》强调“让一切劳动、知识、技术、管理、资本的活力竞相迸发”，要做到这一点，在市场之内的初次分配中，必须让“资本-劳动”分享利润，与此相对应的是一种与“平等”等密切相关的“分享”价值原则。《决定》有关“多渠道增加居民财产性收入”“保障农民公平分享土地增值收益”等重大举措，同样是在市场之内贯彻分享价值原则，而以民生为主的社会建设、以公共服务为主的文化事业则是在市场之外推行分享价值原则的主要方式。全面推行分享价值原则，既有利于坚定地推进新型市场化改革，同时也有利于保障平等、促进和谐、拓展自由，对内可以凝聚社会共识，激发国民创造力，对外则有助于在价值制高点上展现社会主义中国的文化魅力和感召力。     

Labor Market Segmentation,Job Mobility and the Two-track Model of Chinese Urban Workers’ Acquisition of Economic Status

使用“2009年中国社会网络与职业经历调查” (JSNET2009) 广州、上海、厦门、 济南和西安五城市数据, 检验了改革以后影响中国城市劳动者职业流动模式以及经济 地位获得的因素。研究结果表明, 高学历劳动者与低学历劳动者群体处于两个分割的 劳动力市场中, 他们的经济地位获得路径完全不同。对于低学历劳动者, 职业流动是 提升他们收入水平的最重要因素, 而人力资本因素 (受教育年限和工作经验) 对他们 的收入没有影响。高学历劳动者的情况刚好相反, 职业流动对收入获得没有任何作 用, 影响他们收入分层的最重要因素是人力资本。本研究揭示了转型期中国城市地区 不同劳动力市场劳动者的经济地位获得的二元路径模式。

关键词: 劳动力市场分割 职业流动 收入分层 人力资本回报

Using data from the “Survey of Social Networks and Occupational Experience in Chinese Cities in 2009” on five cities (Guangzhou, Shanghai, Xiamen, Jinan and Xi’an), this paper examines factors influencing Chinese urban workers’ patterns of job mobility and acquisition of economic status in the post-reform era. The results show that workers with high educational levels and those with low educational levels occupy different segments of the labor market and have completely different paths to economic status acquisition. In the case of workers with a low educational level, job mobility is the most important factor boosting income levels, while human capital variables (years of schooling and work experience) have no effect on income. By contrast, job mobility has no effect on the income of workers with a high educational level, whose income stratification is most affected by their human capital. This research reveals the two-track model of urban workers’ acquisition of economic status in different urban labor markets in transitional China.     

Income inequality between the sexes in male-dominated public health specialties

Four explanations have been developed to explain women's low wage earnings. Human capital and sex-role socialization theories provide individualistic explanation, while dual labor and split labor market analyses focus on labor market segmentation. This research examines structural factors and finds that females in male-dominated public health specialties earn considerably less than males even when “investments” and opportunities” are controlled.     

Multiple Social Networks in Grassroots Governance in Rural China*

Existing research on grassroots rural governance in China adopts a network perspective to explore the role of traditional social vehicles including clans, clan clusters and popular beliefs in improving village governance. However, most of this research has concentrated on analyzing the way in which horizontal network relationships lead to effective village governance. It has thus to some extent neglected the basic reality of the overlapping interconnections between the “top-down” administrative system and the informal structure of village governance. In fact, an analysis that proceeds from the features of the government’s own organizational network, the social structure of the village itself and the position of its elites in order to focus on modes of interaction within the village under the intermixture of (formal) system design and (informal) social relations, shows that differences in the composition of the government’s promotional networks resulting from the traits of key officials affect the speed of policy dissemination as well as the government’s mode of interaction with the village elites. Moreover, differences in these modes of interaction further influence the subsequent operation of self-organization based on social traditions (“filial piety” or “morality”). At the same time, structural elements, including the economic and social relations of the village itself, determine whether self-organization will improve the quality of governance in the long term. This finding can serve as a reflection on and critique of the theories of “strong government” and “tradition” current in academia.     

企业社会资本的概念与测量：一个综合理论分析框架

本文采用“网络闭合”和“结构洞”两种社会资本的理论视角,提出“信任”和“网络位置”是企业社会资本的最主要特征的观点,并从组织和群体两个层面及企业内部和外部两个部分对企业的社会资本测量进行了分析。在本文所提出的企业社会资本测量的分析框架中,在组织层面上,将企业看作是网络中的节点,关注企业的正式关系以及网络结构特征;在群体层面上,将企业社会资本看作是企业“班底”的内部信任程度以及在他们在人际关系网络中的位置。     

Factors Impacting Market Occupancy of Non‐profit Human Service Organizations in the Public Social Service Market: Focused on an Individual Level

This study aims to experientially verify which factors of non‐profit human service organizations affect market sharing activities in the public social service market. Due to market‐oriented government policies, non‐profit human service organizations, which used to enjoy stable financial resources, are now placed in a competitive position to provide their services. It is necessary to find out which organizational factors give a competitive advantage to various service providers in competition, including profit organizations, and apply them to the management and operation of non‐profit human service organizations. This is how this study started. Independent variables were organizational characteristics (organization age, total budget, number of employees), externally oriented culture (development culture, rational culture), and organizational structure (centralization, formalization), while dependent variables were the number of vouchers and total profits. Data was collected from 35 community welfare centers, rehabilitation centers, and senior centers (163 respondents) in Busan, Korea. Multiple regression analysis was conducted for data analysis. As a result of the analysis, the number of vouchers was found to be affected by development culture (+) and formalization (?), and total profit from voucher business was determined by organization age (?), total budget (+), and number of employees (+). Based on the results, this study suggests that non‐profit human service organizations should have an externally oriented culture and a flexible organization system to hold more market share in the public social service market.     

转型期劳动力市场形式变迁的制度分析

在我国经济转型期存在着体制型、城乡型、行业型以及市场内生型等竞争性与垄断性并存的二元结构劳动力市场形式。要形成市场配置型的劳动力市场,必须进一步改革现有经济体制,实现劳动力流动市场化、劳动就业契约化、就业机会均等化、人力资本产权明晰化和劳动保障社会化。政府作为制度供给的主体,应当提供相应的劳动力市场政策,尽快形成竞争性的市场配置形劳动力市场。     

农业转型的社会基础:一项对茶叶经营细节的社会学研究

本文关注我国农业转型过程中的组织形态，以茶叶为例，描述了茶叶经营过程中的家庭经营和市场网络，论述了农业的技术细节和交往细节如何塑造了这一经营组织形态。茶叶种植、采摘过程的技术细节决定了家庭经营的独特作用，但是在家庭经营的基础上还需要市场网络与之配合。这个网络的有效运行需要解决一定的“组织困境”，经营者普遍使用类似“和稀泥”的方式解决监督管理问题。本文紧扣交往细节和交往心态分析特色农业的组织形态何以可能的社会基础。交往细节具有费孝通所提出的“意会”的意涵，通过对交往细节和交往心态的分析，深挖交往细节背后的历史维度，可以与社会学理论本土化的努力结合起来，推进社会学对社会关系的研究。     

The Impact of Occupational Characteristics on Income Differences among Urban Employees in China

职业是决定就业人员劳动收入, 继而影响居民收入差距程度的重要变量。本文利 用国家统计局2005年全国1%人口抽样调查数据中的子样本, 对职业与收入差别之间的 关系做了经验分析, 结果发现职业间收入差距可以解释城镇就业人员收入总体差距的12-17%。造成这种差别的主要原因有二: 一是由于各职业对就业人员人力资本上的要 求有差异, 从而导致了职业间劳动要素报酬上的差异; 二是劳动力市场、地区分割所 带来的不同职业间人员自由流动的障碍, 造成了这种收入差别。前一种原因强调了人 力资本的作用, 这应当是市场化改革的积极成效; 而后一种原因反映的却是现阶段的 市场化改革还不彻底。因此, 为了缩小职业间不合理的收入差距, 我们还应进一步深 化改革, 尽可能地排除由于市场、地区分割造成的不同职业间人员自由流动的障碍。

关键词: 职业 收入差异 差异分解 市场分割

Occupation is an important variable that determines employees’ labor income and thereby influences income differences among residents. On the basis of the subsample of data from the One Percent National Population Sample Survey conducted by the National Bureau of Statistics in China in 2005, this paper conducts an empirical analysis of the relationship between occupation and income differences. It finds that inter-occupational income differences explain 12-17 percent of the total income disparity among urban employees. This inter-occupational income disparity is mainly caused by the fact that, first, different occupations have varying human capital requirements, leading to different labor remuneration, and second, labor market and regional segmentation impede the free flow of labor across different occupations. The first factor highlights the role of human capital, and should be seen as a positive effect of market-oriented reform, while the second reflects the incompleteness of this reform at the present stage. Therefore, to narrow unreasonable inter-occupational income gaps, we need to intensify reform and do our best to remove barriers hindering free mobility between occupations.     

Laziness or liberation? Labor market policies and workers' attitudes toward employment flexibility

This study examined the relationship between labor market policies and employees' willingness to make concessions in order to avoid unemployment. In contrast to previous work that analyzed the behavior of employers and the unemployed, we examined how labor market policies influence employees' flexibility. Multilevel modeling techniques were applied to a data set that was created by combining individual‐level data from the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) with country‐level information from the Organization for Cooperation and Economic Development. The main findings of our analyses were that dismissal protection and unemployment benefits do make a difference to employees' willingness to make concessions, and that the relationships between the willingness to make concessions and labor market policies are nonlinear. Substantively, these nonlinear relationships suggest that employees' willingness to be flexible is negatively associated with both “too much” and “too little” social protection.     

Chinese Workfarism: Logics and Realities of the Work–Welfare Governance Model

Given the fundamental disparities between China and the west in political structures, social values, policy regimes, and problem loads, it is meaningful to use “workfare” as a challenging analytical standpoint and detect that China had created unique workfare regimes to build up the past state‐socialism and the present market‐socialism. In the era of state‐socialism, the dual‐track welfare system, apparently adopting an institutional approach to the city and a residual approach to the countryside, was purposely integrated with the segregated urban‐rural work system, constituting a China‐specific workfare regime in which the whole workforce was included and effectively organized into the socio‐economic order. Under market‐socialism that appears as an awkward hybrid, the work‐welfare governance model is being gradually transformed into a pragmatic, much marketized one, though without idealogical legitimacy as well as a clear‐cut vision. On the one hand, employment differentiation and income disparity resulted from a strategic shift from the “reform‐without‐losers” stage to the “reform‐with‐losers” stage in the labor market, together with a large scale rural‐to‐urban labor migration, are structuring a market‐oriented, stratified employment system. On the other hand, while being a welfare laggard, China's productivist, status‐segregated welfare system is taking shape owing to a set of welfare reforms along the line of marketization and societalization. All these changes would imply that China is converging towards a neo‐liberal regime in which the role of the state is residual to the market.     

劳动力非永续性转移的经济成因及其创新路径

遵循本文提出的城市生活能力分析框架,在转移成本不断减少的情况下,劳动力的即期城市生活能力不断增强,但在可持续性工资收入瓶颈、城市生活成本过高等成本收益的双重约束下,劳动力的长期城市生活能力很低,由此形成了当前中国特殊的“两栖”劳动力转移形式,但这显然不是中国劳动力转移的理想模式。为此,本文提出,劳动力的代际转移是一种可行的次优路径。当代劳动力“两栖”转移的长远意义在于,为其子女的代际转移提供非人力财富、人力资本和社会资本等多维的原始动力。同时,必须为代际转移的顺利实现辅以必要的政策支持,当务之急是为进城务工农民子女的率先市民化提供一揽子的政策举措。     

The digital economy and the future of European welfare states

As a consequence of new technology, labour markets are changing. This article’s central aim is to discuss variations among welfare states in Europe to adjust to changing labour markets. These variations in adjustment suggest that some welfare states are more prepared than others, including their capacity to ensure their sustainable financing. In the years to come, the predicted impact of technological development on labour markets will be huge. Impacts will include stronger “dualization” and new cleavages between “insiders” and “outsiders”. Fewer industrial jobs are to be expected, and service‐sector employment faces a risk of decline due to automation. While the creation of new jobs is likely, it remains to be seen whether these will replace the number of jobs destroyed, leaving the risk that many people whose skills become obsolete will become unemployed in the short as well as the longer term. Furthermore, even if the same number of jobs are eventually created, there will be a period of transition. In the light of this, welfare states will be challenged, not only in how they can finance their activities but also in terms of the threat posed to social cohesion by emerging labour market “winners” and “losers”, with an accompanying higher risk of increasing inequality. The article offers suggestions as to how welfare states may cope with the changes related to the financing of welfare states, and how active labour market policy can be part of the response to help alleviate the expected dramatic changes. Also required is a discussion on the annual average number of hours people will work and how this might be a factor in lower future levels of unemployment.     

Order in Transitional China and Its Institutional Logic

The development of order in transitional China is not merely a matter of institutional supply, but also a matter of defining the state’s special roles and functions in the transition period. Since reform and opening up, China has sought to realize the twin governance aims of high speed development of the socialist economy and maintenance of stability, which require that the state simultaneously undertake the dual roles of modern government and national capital. The consequent adjustments to the governance structure are expressed in the state’s devolution of power to the market while reserving government pricing power; devolution of power to local governments while reserving power over central tasks; and affirming social rights while reserving the power to approve social organizations. At the institutional level, the externalities produced by this “quasi-decentralized governance structure” are marked by the shrinkage of arrangements for collective welfare, the absence of mechanisms for routine security in ordinary life, and the development of mechanisms that allow the government to profit from the market. This may result in the instrumentalization of government functions and the capitalization of public power, producing imbalances in the distribution of social rights, wealth and risk, or in other words, social instability.