How to carry out work on family planning after adopting production responsibility systems in rural areas]

After the Third Meeting of the Eleventh People's Congress, the entire responsibility for agricultural production was transferred to a lower level. Peasants in various areas have adopted the so called production responsibility system, and the phenomenon of an increased population rate has also appeared in some areas. In this article, the author discusses how to solve these problems created by the new situation. The 1st step is try to control population growth through socialist propaganda education, administrative measures, economic incentives and punishments, and family planning work. The 2nd step is to popularize the practice of having only 1 child per household in the rural areas. The 2nd and 3rd child in each family should be controlled and prohibited. This policy formulated by the Central Government should be carried out thoroughly. Families which follow the policy and have only 1 child should be encouraged with economic rewards, and those families which have 2 or more children should be punished economically. The 3rd step is to establish a national work team to be in charge of family planning and birth control. There should be an ideological unity among the nation's leadership. Party members and cadres should establish themselves as good examples for the people so that the population control work may become successful.     

Applying information to improve family planning in Gaoping County]

The scientific management method of improving family planning through information has produced a low birth rate and natural increase rate in Gaoping County, China, since 1976. In order to promote good family planning, Gaoping County incorporated the scientific management method with the establishment of an information network that included information banks, files, and newspaper columns. The officials of Gaoping County focused their efforts on women most susceptible to unplanned childbirth, e.g., women uneducated in birth control and prenatal care. The women were divided into groups according to their educational needs, e.g., women who were hesitant toward birth control, women who used birth control, women who never reproduced, and women who were newly married. By educating these women to the aspects of planned childbirth, prenatal testing, prenatal care, and contraceptives, Gaoping County effectively promoted good family planning in the areas of birth control and family health. The following statistics are the results of incorporating the scientific management system in family planning of Gaoping County. In 1983, the birth rate in Gaoping County was 11.3%, a 2.8% decline from 1982; the mortality rate decreased 0.2% to a rate of 7.6%; and the natural increase rate decreased 2.6% to a rate of 3.7%. The planned birth rate in 1983 was 90.1% and the rate of 1 child per couple was 91%. This was an increase from the 1982 rates of 21.3% and 25.2%, respectively. From January 1984 to June 1984 the planned birth rate reached 97.2%. These statistics are evidence of the positive results in using information in family planning.     

Comparison and fairness in family planning]

There are two kinds of comparison in family planning (FP) practice. First, people compare the number of children they have with their desired family size. Second, people compare their number of children with other's. The extent of their satisfaction from the comparison often depends on their expectation. And people's expectation about their family size may have an impact on the level of fertility. One task in a FP program is to regulate people's objects for comparison and to reduce the number of children they expect to have. But, changes in people's desired number of children are largely dependent upon the socio economic charges which can not be achieved in short time. Therefore, it would be more advisable to direct people to compare their fertility behavior with those of couples who have only one child, rather than those who have 3 or 4. Satisfaction with family size also comes from a feeling of fairness. People not only look at what they get, but also at what others get. Fairness and justice in FP program implementation is important. If those who violate local birth control policies and regulations are not properly punished, other people would feel that the situation is unfair and they would regret that they did not do the same. The pressure brought by over-population to socio-economic development has been gradually felt by most people. But, it is still difficult to have them strictly observe the present fertility regulation policy. If restrictions of various kinds are enforced and education and publicity are used, people will feel that they are being treated fairly. This will facilitate the promotion of the FP program.     

Some psychological problems in family planning work]

Psychology has significance in family planning work, because it may promote the scientific nature of family planning work and thus increase its effectiveness. Since people have some common aspects in their psychological process, family planning workers should master some common rules of the people's psychological process in order to understand psychological trends and possible behavior. Through this method, family planning workers may find how to adjust to problems they may encounter in their daily work, such as the worries about a single child being too lonely, spoiled, and hard to handle for the parents, the traditional belief that more children represent good fortune, and more male children may provide security for one's old age. Traditionally, the Chinese people believed that only male children can carry on the family line and that more children will provide a larger labor force, which is beneficial to a family's financial situation. In family planning work, all such incorrect ways of thinking should be corrected and revised. Studies of children's psychology should also be developed so that children may develop a healthy mentality. All these are crucial to the success of family planning work and the promotion of population quality.     

New rules for family planning and land management in Shaanxi province

These Rules, issued by the Government of Shaanxi Province, China, are as follows: "a) in appropriate residence-building sites and contracting economic forest, priority is given to those who practise family planning conscientiously; b) [a] bigger plot of land for producing mouth grain and of contracted land can be allocated to those single children who have received single child certificates; c) the quota of land appropriated for residence-building sites shall not be raised for those who have unplanned births, and no land for residence-building sites is given to those who get married below the legal age for marriage or who cohabit without going through the formal procedures of marriage registration; d) to those who have a first parity but early birth or a second birth without adequate spacing, appropriation of one person's share of contracted land will be delayed, and to those who have unplanned births, only half a share of contracted plot of land will be appropriated at a deferred date; e) those who violate the family planning policy or refuse to practise family planning shall not be permitted to contract economic forest."     

The nature of family planning management in China]

Family planning (FP) program management in China uses the power of the state to manage population reproduction. the characteristics of program management are as follows. 1) The FP program is for the benefit of the state, community and individual, 2) the FP program is a process of birth planning under social planning rather than an individual family's planning, 3) FP include both restriction on the number of people and the improvement of the quality of the population. 4) FP is a public affair. Government organizations at all levels of coordination and mobilize the FP program so that people of all walks of life can participate. 5) People participate in the FP program management by expressing their views in the people's congress, through communication with administration leadership, and through self-education. The special features of FP program management in China are also reflected in its concerns with a variety of target populations, its need for cooperation from people and its need for involvement of all institutions and enterprises. As the human reproductive cycle is long, making a long- term strategic policy for FP is no less important than long-term economic planning. The management of the program should emphasize direction and persuasion, the provision of services and help to people, and the efforts to involve government or public organizations in promoting planning programs.     

颁布、施行人口与计划生育法对人口与计划生育工作的挑战

颁布、施行人口与计生法为加强人口与计生工作提供了法律保障 ,无疑是一件大好事。但是 ,特殊的国情决定了实施人口与计生法会遇到许多困难和问题 ,对人口与计生工作的思路、方法 ,对人口与计生工作的任务、要求 ,对人口与计生工作的作风、工作效率 ,等等 ,都是一种挑战。因此 ,我们必须采取有力措施 ,积极应对这种挑战 ,切实搞好依法管理 ,依法实行计划生育     

Promoting family planning work in Xiaqidu township by establishing a family planning association in each village]

A family planning association was established in each village of Xiaqidu Township in Hunan Province, China in October 1986. The positive functions of each such association were so fully developed that family planning work reached new levels. For example, most villages are no longer experiencing early marriages or unplanned births. Some of the villages have established associations for individual work groups. The traditional method was for both township and village associations to rely upon the positive attitudes of officials to instill into fertile women Party policy, and to arouse their patriotism and initiative. By establishing family planning associations at the village level, however, the people can conduct their own affairs and educate themselves. Emphasis has been placed on attracting into the associations those who are of childbearing age, as well as older villagers of experience. The associations' raison d'etre was to serve the people. They did so through: propaganda (disseminating population theory, birth control and family planning information); helping the people overcome poverty, traditional thinking, and ignorance; assisting women with any problems and anxieties relating to child-bearing; delivering contraceptives to households; and providing the elderly with care and the young with education.     

How economic development and family planning programs combined to reduce indonesian fertility

This paper examines the contributions of family planning programs, economic development, and women’s status to Indonesian fertility decline from 1982 to 1987. Methodologically we unify seemingly conflicting demographic and economic frameworks into a single “structural” proximate-cause model as well as controlling statistically for the targeted (nonrandom) placement of family planning program inputs. The results are consistent with both frameworks: 75% of the fertility decline resulted from increased contraceptive use, but was induced primarily through economic development and improved education and economic opportunities for females. Even so, the dramatic impact of the changes in demand-side factors (education and economic development) on contraceptive use was possible only because there already existed a highly responsive contraceptive supply delivery system.     

Combining vertical service with horizontal service to promote family planning]

How Bazhong County of Sechuan Province, China, carries out family planning through a combination of what are termed vertical and horizontal services is described. Vertical service refers to assistance such as premarital education, prenatal hygiene, child health care, and family planning, while horizontal service refers to household assistance for married women. Premarital education is designed to help young people acquire sufficent knowledge about family planning, hygiene, and eugenics, and stresses the disadvantages involved in marriages between close relatives. Prenatal hygiene provides safe and convenient medical accommodations for delivery of the child as well as maternal care. Child health services assure that the best facilities are to be made available for physical examinations, vaccinations, and medical treatment. The family planning program involves comprehensive measures such as distribution of contraceptives and safe sterilization. In addition, the county provides medical assistance for couples unable to have children. Horizontal service providing household assistance for married women promotes scientific farming (e.g., how to use fertilizer), helps people increase their income by teaching them skills, and provides social services to improve life style and education. These vertical and horizontal services have brought about substantial improvements in the standard of living, family harmony, and population control.     

Population and family planning of minority groups]

The population of minority groups has been increasing rapidly in recent years, but the rate of increase is different depending on the region, for various reasons: 1) Population increase rates are high in flat, low regions with warm weather, a good natural environment, and good transportation systems. Productivity is beginning to lag behind population growth (population increased by 90% from 1953 to 1982). 2) Population is increasing at a slower rate in high regions with cool weather and an average natural environment. The productivity growth rate in these regions is about the same (the population increased by 37.5% from 1949 to 1980). 3) Population is increasing at a lower, or even negative, rate in mountainous regions with little flat land and poor transportation service. 4) In some regions, large families are predominant because of tradition and/or religion. In some minority groups, where large extended families are the rule, increases are low because of health problems. People in minority groups are willing to practice family planning, but it is impossible to make one general family planning policy because people in different regions face different problems.     

A broadcast on family planning in Hefeng County]

New ideas for the promotion of family planning among distant regions is the objective of this report which states that rural communities lack effective means of communication mainly due to poor transportation facilities, a serious illiteracy problem, and the fact that in certain regions, households are virtually inaccesible because of mountainous terrain. Such is the situation in He Feng County, Hubei Province, in southern central China. It has a population of 180,000 people composed of 3 ethnic groups. The communication barriers mentioned above act to hinder the promotion of effective family planning. In a study carried out in He Feng County, it was found that bad transportation facilities were a contributing factor to the region's backward education. Moreover, the illiteracy and semiilliteracy rates in He Feng County comprise 20% of the population. The problem is compounded by the fact that its 40,000 households are scattered throughout the mountains. In an effort to combat the prevailing situations, the author suggests that an effective means of family planning promotion would be the installation of loudspeakers in almost every household in the county (a total of 25,000 loudspeakers). This would provide suitable family planning education to males and females of different age groups and would foster knowledge of its significance and importance, thereby changing existing rural attitudes about family planning. Furthermore, the government could provide support groups in these regions in order to promote family planning objectives.     

Selling family planning to the farmer

Dr. Juan M. Flavier of the International Institute of Rural Reconstr uction (IIRR) found medical terms used by family planning teams had little meaning for rural audiences. In addition, the family planners lectured too much and did not truly reach their farm audiences. The Institute developed a series of materials based on agricultural parallels with captions in verse, capitalizing on the rural Filipino's love of balagtasan (debate in verse) and duplo (couplets). The IUD is likened to a stone which prevents a seed from germinating. The ill-effect of frequent childbirth is likened to a citrus tree laden with too many fruit. The program talks about birth control or limitation in number, spacing, and infertility. Dr. Flavier believes it is important to include infertility if only to show that family planning is an aid to all couples. Many times the farm illustration will spark discussion, which allows the group to bring up questions about birth control which otherwise they would not. A 3-year grant to study the IIRR approach found that this adaptive technique, though slower in the beginning, led to greater continuation rates and more confidence in family planning. It could be used in urban poor areas as well because many slum and working-class families have rural backgrounds. Also, the household illustrations (comparing a cervical cap to the lid of a pot which keeps unwanted items out) would be understandable to most women.     

A gold key to initiate a new situation in family planning work]

Because of the popularization of a responsible agricultural production system, the livilihood of peasants has been improving greatly, while the demands and needs of the general public are also increasing at the same time. Still under the influence of the traditional belief of carrying on one's family line and emphasis on having male children, married people prefer to have more childre, and the birth rate is now rising again. In order to solve this new problem, we need to teach the peasants national policies on population, land utilization, and food supply. In order to initiate a new situation in family planning work, we need to control this "gold key" of ideological education and propaganda. The emphasis should be placed on ideological education for cadres at all levels as well as the general public in order that they may understand the Party's strategy. Education on the national strategy should be combined with material interests of the peasants, and reward and punishment in production should also be linked up with that of family planning. Social measures are needed to reduce economic burdens of the peasants, offer better treatment for single-child households, and provide adequate care for old and retired people. Family planning projects should be consolidated and improved. Scientific management, facilities and techniques for birth control, compensation for working personnel in family planning, and other practical problems deserve immediate attention and solution.     

Premarriage education in family planning should begin in puberty]

The work of disseminating family planning information must begin at puberty in order to provide a sound foundation for future family planning education. Premarital education that begins at puberty should emphasize decreasing the number of early marriages, planning for only 1 child, and superior births. The Chinese Family Planning Association held a special seminar in November 1986, in Taicang County, Jiangsu Province, to study sex education. Some observations by individual participants are included below and do not represent the viewpoints of the Conference. Education at puberty concerns 2 primary areas: knowledge about sex, and morals concerning sex. At this age, physical changes are met by immature minds. Adolescents are not informed about the sexes; nor do they understand self control. Families and teachers must help them comprehend physical desire and relationships. The first step in educating adolescents is to eradicate feudal attitudes that make sex a taboo subject and that equate it with obscenity. Sex education is scientific and must be disseminated as such. If proper objective information is not provided, adolescents will acquire the wrong, and sometimes detrimental, information from peers. Early marriage, abortions by unwed mothers and sex crimes can be prevented by proper education. In those schools, particularly in Shanghai, which have sex education, the reception has been positive among teachers and students. Although sex education is crucial to educating adolescents, it should not be confined to this age group. Engaged couples and newlyweds also need such information.     

Quality of care and family planning drop-outs in Bukidnon province: a survey study

A study was undertaken in the province of Bukidnon in the Philippines to determine the actual percentage of family planning (FP) acceptors who become dropouts, the reasons they drop out, and the factors most strongly associated with this phenomenon. Data were collected through interviews with married women of reproductive age who had been recorded as being a FP acceptor during 1992. The sample size was set at 400 using a probability-proportionate-to-size sampling technique. In examining the extent of the drop-out problem, it was found that the actual FP status of each respondent agreed with the clinic records in 73.4% of cases and that 22% of those thought to be dropouts had actually switched methods. Most of the women who stopped using oral contraceptives said they did so because of side effects. The drop-out problem was most acute among women who were poorer, less educated, and of higher parity. The attitude of a husband towards use of a method was a better predictor of continuation than the wife's attitude. Clients who felt their provider was approachable and friendly were significantly less likely to drop out. Despite the fact that the FP program is modeled on a "cafeteria" approach which provides choices to acceptors, 9.5% of acceptors in this survey claimed they were not offered a choice. Women who received limited information were more likely to become drop-outs. Clients who had to return to clinics frequently for resupply of OCs or condoms were most likely to become drop-outs. While the number of dropouts identified in this study was only half the official estimate for the province, the short time between FP acceptance and the survey may have reduced the number of dropouts. The program implications of these findings are that 1) the occurrence of side effects needs study, 2) groups characterized by high drop-out rates should receive immediate attention, 3) favorable attitudes should be fostered in husbands, 4) women must receive more information on their options, 5) quality of care must be improved, 6) the use of the IUD should be promoted, and 7) resupply procedures should be revised to reduce trips to the clinic.     

Measures of influence of family planning program on fertility]

The question of how to measure the influence of family planning in fertility has been addressed by numerous international scholars. Highlighted briefly here are some of the methods endorsed by United Nations publications and recognized by scholars of various countries: 1) Standardization; 2) John Bongaarts model; 3) Trend analysis; 4) Wishik model; 5) Converse model of Dorothy Nartman; 6) Potter model; 7) Nathan Keyfitz model; 8) "Plural model"; 9) Model analysis.     

Develop family planning work based on the reality of minority regions]

Pingtang County, Guizhou Province, is the home of the Bu-i and Miao minorities, who comprise 55% of the county's population. Since 1980, the county has vigorously followed family planning such that the rate of birth control rose from 20% in 1978 to 95% in 1985, the rate of natural growth went from 34/1000 to 3.6/1000, and the multiple child rate dropped to about 6% from 37.7% Following 5 years of work, the following observations are made: 1) The first step is to determine whether or not to have family planning because the common feeling about minorities is that by virtue of being a minority, family planning is not a serious issue. But family planning became a necessity when it was realized that population was growing faster than food production, creating problems in housing and public health, and in a dependence on the nation at large. 2) The initial step in family planning is ideological; a plan should be implemented whereby goals to reform old customs and thoughts (such as favoring males over females) are carried out by local leaders and cadres at all levels.