美国教育公正之路探析——以20 世纪下半叶美国著名教育行政诉讼案为例

二战以后美国关于教育机会均等的行政诉讼案大致可分为两类：一类是直接以州政府种族隔离、种族歧视教育政策违宪为由的行政诉讼;另一类是以学区间教育财政格差造成学生受教育机会不均等为由提出的诉讼。从这些诉讼特点的变化可略见美国社会关于教育机会均等的理念的演变及教育公正发展的历程。     

Foreclosures and crime: A city-level analysis in Southern California of a dynamic process

Although a growing body of research has examined and found a positive relationship between neighborhood crime and home foreclosures, some research suggests this relationship may not hold in all cities. This study uses city-level data to assess the relationship between foreclosures and crime by estimating longitudinal models with lags for monthly foreclosure and crime data in 128 cities from 1996 to 2011 in Southern California. We test whether these effects are stronger in cities with a combination of high economic inequality and high economic segregation; and whether they are stronger in cities with high racial/ethnic heterogeneity and high racial segregation. One month, and cumulative three month, six month, and 12-month lags of foreclosures are found to increase city level crime for all crimes except motor vehicle theft. The effect of foreclosures on these crime types is stronger in cities with simultaneously high levels of inequality but low levels of economic segregation. The effect of foreclosures on aggravated assault, robbery, and burglary is stronger in cities with simultaneously high levels of racial heterogeneity and low levels of racial segregation. On the other hand, foreclosures had a stronger effect on larceny and motor vehicle theft when they occurred in a city with simultaneously high levels of racial heterogeneity and high levels of racial segregation. There is evidence that the foreclosure crisis had large scale impacts on cities, leading to higher crime rates in cities hit harder by foreclosures. Nonetheless, the economic and racial characteristics of the city altered this effect.     

A multivariate analysis of response structure: Race attitudes, 1972–1977

A particular kind of latent class model is used to characterize the unobservable variable measured by six discrete indicators of racial stance in 1972 and 1977. Methods recently introduced by Clogg and Goodman, 1982, Clogg and Goodman, 1983) for the simultaneous latent structure analysis of two multidimensional contingency tables are employed in across-year homogeneity tests on the latent class proportions. Trends in multivariate response patterns over the 5-year interval are then examined by cross-classifying the predicted latent variable with selected demographic characteristics of respondents in each year. The results indicate that (1) no significant changes in the distribution of the latent variable occurred over the 5-year time period, and (2) the status of certain demographic variables as predictors of racial stance fluctuated between the two survey years.     

No place like home? Familism and Latino/a–white differences in college pathways

Recent research has argued that familism, defined as a cultural preference for privileging family goals over individual goals, may discourage some Latino/a youth from applying to and attending college, particularly if they must leave home (Desmond and López Turley, 2009). Using data from the Education Longitudinal Study, we find that Latino/a students and parents indeed have stronger preferences than white students and parents for living at home during college. For students, most differences in preferences for proximate colleges are explained by socioeconomic status, academic achievement and high school/regional differences. Moreover, controlling for socioeconomic background and prior achievement explains most racial/ethnic gaps in college application and attendance among high school graduates, suggesting that familism per se is not a significant deterrent to college enrollment above and beyond these more primary factors. However, results indicate generational differences; cultural factors may contribute to racial/ethnic gaps in parental preferences for children to remain at home.     

Inequality of educational opportunity in France and the United States

Unequality of educational opportunity is related to school structure. Comparison of the attainment process in France and the United States reveals the consequences of structure for individuals' attainments. Turner's (1960) typology of educational systems is applied. The French educational system is shown to be closer to Turner's “sponsorship system,” and that of the U. S. closer to the “contest” type. Inequality of educational opportunity, as indicated by the effect of father's occupational status on years of schooling completed, is greater in France than in the U. S. The difference is accounted for by school structural variables, indicating the importance of structure for inequality of opportunity. Other differences concerning the causes of educational attainment in France and the U. S. are also discussed.     

Occupational prestige from preference orientations via the Markov Chain: An alternative to respondent ranking techniques

This paper suggests a method of determining occupational prestige structures through simulation of transfer of credit processes involving the Markov Chain. The method required recording present and preferred occupations of a representative sample of employed persons. Following the example of Blau (1956) and Empey (1956) the concept “preferred occupation” is suggested as clearly distinct from occupational choice which has been treated by other researchers (Musgrave 1967; Carol and Parry 1968; Kuvlesky and Bealer 1966; Haller and Sewell 1967; Solcum 1956; and Philband and Gregory 1956). A series of Markov Chain interactions transforms the present-preferred occupation matrix, “controls” for structure limitations on ambitions and social distance, and generates a hierarchical model of occupational prestige structures. This paper examines the methodological and theoretical issues implicit in the measurement of prestige and the establishment of prestige hierarchies, and describes the procedures of the application of the Markov Chain to occupational preference responses. It reports the results of the application of this technique to a pilot sample and compares the resulting hierarchy with those derived from NORC measures and the Duncan socioeconomic index.     

A note on block variables in multiequation models

This paper seeks to further refine the efforts of Coleman (Social Science Research 5, 1–20, 1976) and Igra (Social Science Research 8, 253–264, 1979) to develop summary regressionlike coefficients for causal models involving blocks of conceptually related variables, using Heise's (Sociological Methods and Research 1, 147–173, 1972) strategy of explicitly representing block concepts as unobserved intervening variables in a multiequation model. Such models can be estimated using the maximum-likelihood techniques of Jöreskog and Sörbom (LISREL IV: Analysis of Linear Structural Relationships by the Method of Maximum Likelihood, International Educational Services, Chicago, 1978). The procedure proposed leads to (a) an unambiguous definition of block variables in terms of their constituent variables; (b) a clear definition of effects of conceptual variables on one another, and on single response variables, and a reduced model formulated in terms of conceptual variables only; and (c) a clear decomposition of correlations between conceptual variables into direct effects, indirect effects, and unanalyzed components. Numerical illustration is provided.     

The social standing of jobs: Scores for all Australian occupations

This paper presents the method used to develop the ANU II status scores for all Australian occupations. For some purposes it supersedes ANU I, a 16-point scale (Broom, Jones, and Zubrzycki, 1965, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology (Suppl.) 1; Broom and Jones, 1969, American Sociological Review 34, 650–658). The two scales correlate at .83. The new scale was calculated using a broad range of data applied to a prestige score criterion to estimate an equation used to predict status scores for all occupations. These scores are available in Broom, Duncan-Jones, Jones, and McDonnell (1977, Investigating Social Mobility) along with further details of the method and results. The new scale is currently being used in the analysis of the ANU 1973 survey of social mobility in Australia, and in the reanalysis of data from the ANU 1965 survey. Preliminary results (also presented in Broom et al., 1977) indicate that the scale will be comparable both across time in Australia and across space when comparisons with the “second generation” of mobility studies is undertaken.     

Components of change in the number of female family heads ages 15 to 44, an update and reanalysis: United States, 1940 to 1983

We review the literature dealing with the various components of change in the number of female family heads and conclude that P. Cutright's (1974, Journal of Marriage and the Family 36, 714–721) four components of change in the number of ever-married female family heads can be usefully applied to a reanalysis of decade-by-decade changes in this quantity among white and nonwhite women ages 15–44, from 1940 through 1980. However, we substantially revise and update Cutright's (1974) original data. Our findings include the fact that while the relative importance of the various components of increases in ever-married female family headship vary from decade to decade, overall trends are fairly similar for white and nonwhite women. Moreover, the rapid rise between 1970 and 1980 in the number of white and nonwhite female family heads among the never-married (single) continued through the 1980 to 1983 period. A decade ago, Cutright (1974) predicted that a change in the number of female family heads from 1970 on would reflect little more than changes in the numbers of ever- and never-married women ages 15–44. We discuss this inaccurate prediction and conclude that wishful thinking is a poor guide in forecasting the future.     

Coincidence probabilities for simple majority and positional voting rules

With three candidates and an odd number n of voters, let Q(n, λ, p) be the probability that the winning candidate under the point-total rule that assigns 1, λ, and 0 points respectively to each first, second, and third-place vote is the same as the simple majority candidate, given that there exists a simple majority candidate, when each voter independently selects a linear preference order on the candidates by a common probability distribution p on the six linear orders on the candidates. With Q(n, λ) = Q(n, λ, p) when p assigns probability $\text{1}\text{6}$ to each order, the λ values that maximize Q(n, λ) for small n consist of open intervals in [0, $\text{1}\text{2}$]. Using quadrivariate normals, a computational form is developed for the limiting probability Q(λ) = lim_n→∞Q(n, λ). The function Q(λ) = Q(1 ? λ) for each λ ? [0, 1] and is differentiable with Q(λ) strictly increasing as λ goes from 0 to $\text{1}\text{2}$. The maximum value $\text{Q(}\text{1}\text{2}\text{)}$ is approximately. 901189. Effects of nonuniform p distributions on Q(n, λ, p) are also discussed.     

The Mapping of family-composition preferences: A scaling analysis

When subjects express preference for one type of family composition over another, their judgments have the useful property that they can be referred to the ‘objective’ characteristics defining the stimuli. Pair comparison preference data from the Bollen-Delbeke study are “internally” analyzed according to the Carroll-Chang “Points of View” vector model and Coombs' Unfolding (distance) model. The distance model was found to give a better fit. Secondly, the models are compared within the framework of Carroll's Preference Mapping hierarchy of models, referring the data to the ‘objective’ structure underlying the stimuli. The simple distance model is found to give a much better fit.The methodological and substantive implications of this finding are discussed.¹     

Intransitivity in the structure of small closed groups

Observations of the structure of closed groups are presented which give rise to four observable tendencies within either a sociogram or the cat_ij matrix as developed by Bernard and Killworth (1973). These observations are used to form theories of social structure of varying degrees of complexity; all these theories, however, are somewhat unusual in that intransitivity of interpersonal sentiment, far from being an artifact, is proposed as an essential part of the structure of human groups, whereas recent papers have stressed the occurrence of transitivity within a group. A statistical theory including the earlier theories shows that at least three subgroups must exist within a group, even if only two are forced by external organization. One of these subgroups is formed of mutually unknown individuals who serve as connecting links between other subgroups formed by strong interpersonal sentiment.     

Coalitional affiliation as a missing link between ethnic polarization and well-being: An empirical test from the European Social Survey

Many studies converge in suggesting (a) that ethnic and racial minorities fare worse than host populations in reported well-being and objective measures of health and (b) that ethnic/racial diversity has a negative impact on various measures of social trust and well-being, including in the host or majority population. However, there is much uncertainty about the processes that connect diversity variables with personal outcomes. In this paper, we are particularly interested in different levels of coalitional affiliation, which refers to people’s social allegiances that guide their expectations of social support, in-group strength and cohesion. We operationalize coalitional affiliation as the extent to which people rely on a homogeneous social network, and we measure it with indicators of friendships across ethnic boundaries and frequency of contact with friends. Using multi-level models and data from the European Social Survey (Round 1, 2002–2003) for 19 countries, we demonstrate that coalitional affiliation provides an empirically reliable, as well as theoretically coherent, explanation for various effects of ethnic/racial diversity.     

The analysis of ordinal dispersion: A comparison of Leik's “D” with a variance formula

The frequency of ordinal data and the importance of attitudinal consensus in social research motivated Leik [Leik, R. L. (1966), Pacific Sociological Review 9, 85–90] to formulate a simple, effective measure of ordinal dispersion, but he did not provide a method for its statistical analysis, and its operational interpretation for nonextremal values is unclear. Leik's D is an equal-interval, “folded” scoring vector inner dot-product, scalar transformation of the vector of ordered relative frequencies. The folding point is the median category. The metric analog of D is the difference between the random variable's expected values above and below the median. An equal-interval, pure variance measure of ordinal dispersion is posited and compared to D. They correlate closely but not perfectly, and D has a serious problem when an extremal category has more than half the total cases. Both formulas are easily generalized to non-equal-interval scorings. A general linear model for categorical data permits easy statistical comparisons of D, but not the variance. D tends to underestimate the degree of significant dispersion in comparison to the variance formula, it is suggested.     

Qualitative variance,entropy, and correlation ratios for nominal dependent variables

In this paper we derive a measure of dispersion for a nominal variable having k ? 2 categories and compare it with ordinary quantitative variance and with entropy. We then develop two qualitative analogs to the R² statistic, one based on qualitative variance, the other on entropy. For concreteness, data from the study of The American Soldier by S. A. Stouffér, E. A. Suchman, L. C. Devinney, S. A. Star, and R. M. Williams, Jr. (1949, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J.) are used to illustrate the computations and compare these two correlation ratios for a variety of logit models. It is shown that both measures are reasonable measures of the proportion of variation of one or more qualitative dependent variables explainable by any mixture of qualitative and quantitative predictor variables. They can be used with logit, probit, dummy variable regression models, or probability models of some other type.     

The persistence of white flight in middle-class suburbia

Scholars have continued to debate the extent to which white flight remains racially motivated or, in contrast, the result of socioeconomic concerns that proxy locations of minority residence. Using 1990–2010 census data, this study contributes to this debate by re-examining white flight in a sample of both poor and middle-class suburban neighborhoods. Findings fail to provide evidence in support of the racial proxy hypothesis. To the contrary, for neighborhoods with a larger non-white presence, white flight is instead more likely in middle-class as opposed to poorer neighborhoods. These results not only confirm the continued salience of race for white flight, but also suggest that racial white flight may be motivated to an even greater extent in middle-class, suburban neighborhoods. Theoretically, these findings point to the decoupling of economic and racial residential integration, as white flight may persist for groups even despite higher levels of socioeconomic attainment.     

Vocational education: A clean slate for disengaged students?

Students’ social psychological adjustment to school is an important determinant of achievement growth as well as school continuation and post-secondary educational attainment. Yet many students begin high school with low levels of efficacy and self-worth, and low levels of identification with and liking of school. In this study, we investigate the hypothesis that vocational education in high school provides disengaged students with an educational clean slate, leading to a recovery of engagement for at-risk students. Using propensity score models, we assess the relationship between vocational course taking and changes in effort, extracurricular participation, sense of belonging, interest in school, attitudes toward school and teachers, educational expectations, career aspirations, locus of control, and self-concept with the NELS:88 database.     

Intergenerational and career mobility in Britain: An integrated analysis

Mobility analysis has traditionally concentrated on the task of charting flows in the two-way contingency table which relates occupational origin to occupational destination. It has not yet undertaken a unified analysis of intergenerational and intragenerational aspects of mobility. And only rarely does it incorporate terms which represent ordered concepts such as inequality or vertical movement. In contrast, path analysis has typically imposed strong orderings on the data, and it has been employed to tease out the relations among several occupational variables. Its main defect is that it entirely abstracts from shifts in mean occupational position, and also from change in the shape of the occupational distribution. Yet both of these are important sources of mobility. The present paper shows how two innovations in mobility analysis may be generalized to constitute a technique which unites the strengths of path analysis with those of log-linear analysis. The two innovations are (a) the conceptual disaggregation of perfect and exchange mobility, and (b) the imposition of an ordered component within each (K. Hope, 1981, Sociology 15, 19–55). The outcome of this generalization is a simple yet powerful account of mobility in Britain.