Unmet Need for Family Planning in Developing Countries and Implications for Population Policy

Unmet need for family planning has been a core concept in international population discourse for several decades. This article reviews the history of unmet need and the development of increasingly refined methods of its empirical measurement and delineates the main questions that have been raised about unmet need during the past decade, some of which concern the validity of the concept and others its role in policy debates. The discussion draws heavily on empirical research conducted during the 1990s, much of it localized, in‐depth studies combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Of the causes of unmet need other than those related to access to services, three emerge as especially salient: lack of necessary knowledge about contraceptive methods, social opposition to their use, and health concerns about possible side effects. The article argues that the concept of unmet need for family planning, by joining together contraceptive behavior and fertility preferences, encourages an integration of family planning programs and broader development approaches to population policy. By focusing on the fulfillment of individual aspirations, unmet need remains a defensible rationale for the formulation of population policy and a sensible guide to the design of family planning programs.     

A Critical Examination of the Environmental Mastery Scale

The Psychological well being Inventory (PWBI) is a multidimensional instrument that has enjoyed widespread use in a variety of research initiatives, from small-scale studies to national surveys. Recent empirical investigation of the measure has raised questions about its validity. This study examines the factorial validity of the Environmental Mastery Scale of the PWBI, a construct that receives much attention in mental health research. The results of a confirmatory factor analysis did not support the unidimensional factor structure of the measure. Correlated uniqueness models were also examined, which did not reveal evidence of a method effect. There are problems with the measure at the item level, which also raises significant questions about the underlying theory of its parent measure. This research uses data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS) of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Since 1991, the WLS has been supported principally by the National Institute on Aging (AG-9775 and AG-21079), with additional support from the Vilas Estate Trust, the National Science Foundation, the Spencer Foundation, and the Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison. A public use file of data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study is available from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1180 Observatory Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706 and at http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/wls/data/. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors.     

Opportunity for Adult Bonding/Meaningful Neighborhood Roles and Life-Satisfaction among USA Middle School Students

This study investigated the relationship between adolescent life- satisfaction and bonding to adults/developing meaningful roles in the neighborhood within a pilot study of slightly modified version of the CDC Middle School Youth Risk Behavior Survey (MSYRBS) in a southern state in the USA. Overall, 43% of students reported that they were satisfied with their lives overall, and 34% reported that they experienced positive adult relationships and meaningful roles in their neighborhoods. After adjusting for socioeconomic status and family structure, differential associations were found between adolescent life satisfaction and bonding to adults/developing meaningful roles. Opportunities for adult bonding and meaningful roles in the neighborhood related to increased life satisfaction more strongly for Caucasian students than African-American students. Post-Hoc analyses suggest that the explanation for these differential relationships may involve socioeconomic status. *This research was conducted via the South Carolina Middle School Youth Risk Behaviour Survey funded by the CDC/Legacy Foundation, Atlanta, Georgia in cooperation with the South Carolina Department of Health & Environmental Control, Columbia, South Carolina.     

The determinants of a mother's choice of family structure

This study attempts to clarify the effect of welfare generosity on family structure while controlling for community mores, local labor market conditions, and other sociodemographic characteristics. In the existing AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) literature, these latter factors have been largely ignored. The empirical analysis is conducted by linking individual-level data from the 1987 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH) with information on county-level unemployment rates, state AFDC benefits, and proxies of community mores. In particular, the detailed nature of the NSFH data set provides a unique opportunity to investigate the social and economic determinants of cohabitation, among other family structures. Local labor market conditions are found to significantly affect marriage and single-motherhood, while community conservatism is found to discourage the least conventional family structure — cohabitation. Finally, this study raises some question about the effect of AFDC policy on marriage and related events. Specifically, AFDC's statistical impact is found to be sensitive to the inclusion of an explicit measure of community conservatism in the empirical model specification.     

Getting Under the Skin: Children’s Health Disparities as Embodiment of Social Class

Social class gradients in children’s health and development are ubiquitous across time and geography. The authors develop a conceptual framework relating three actions of class—material allocation, salient group identity, and inter-group conflict—to the reproduction of class-based disparities in child health. A core proposition is that the actions of class stratification create variation in children’s mesosystems and microsystems in distinct locations in the ecology of everyday life. Variation in mesosystems (e.g., health care, neighborhoods) and microsystems (e.g., family structure, housing) become manifest in a wide variety of specific experiences and environments that produce the behavioral and biological antecedents to health and disease among children. The framework is explored via a review of theoretical and empirical contributions from multiple disciplines, and high-priority areas for future research are highlighted.     

Spousal agreement on the value of children and fertility behavior

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between the level of spousal agreement on the value of children and fertility behavior. Interviews with 441 once married couples from a probability sample in Robeson County, North Carolina, provide the data for testing the hypothesized relationships. The results indicate that the level of spousal agreement on the value of children is significantly related to live births, family size expectations and fertility planning. The introduction of duration of marriage and wife's education as controls did not significantly alter these relationships. An important implication of the findings is the need for research on the family formation process to focus on both the husband and wife.Paper No. 11446 of the Journal Series of the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, North Carolina. The research for this study was initially supported by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (1 ROLH005321-02).     

Incorporating husband-wife differences in place utility differentials into migration decision models

This paper extends the micro-level empirical literature on migration decision making by investigating the manner in which husbands' and wives' subjective place utility expectations jointly feed into migration decisions in a low-income country. The authors use expectational data relating to four place utility dimensions and stated migration intentions of 376 village-resident Egyptian couples to test alternative decision models. An ordinal probit estimation technique is employed. The results of the analyses support the hypothesis of husband dominance in migration decisions in this context. The authors conclude with a discussion of the implications of the paper for further theoretical refinement and for migration survey design in this and other developing countries.Dr. McDevitt is a Research Associate of the Carolina Population Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Dr. Gadalla, former Director of The Social Research Center of The American University in Cairo, is currently Visiting Distinguished Professor of Sociology-Demography, San Diego State University, San Diego.This is a revised version of a paper presented at the 1984 annual meetings of the Population Association of America and cited throughout as McDevitt and Gadalla (1984). The authors wish to acknowledge helpful discussions with Amos Hawley in the early stages of the development of the paper and the guidance of David Guilkey and Larry Taylor with the statistical techniques employed in the work reported in the paper. The research was supported in part by grants 1-R01-HD14943 and 1-T32-HD07168 from the National Institutes of Health.     

Using operations research to guide family planning program development and policy formulation in sub-Saharan Africa

The process by which a population policy and family planning program evolve in a given country is influenced by many factors that combine to make each country's experience unique. One of the most influential factors among these is the role played by external technical assistance, normally provided through donor-supported mechanisms. One donor-supported mechanism that seeks to guide the operational policy and program development process is technical assistance through operations research. Many questions are raised during the design of family planning programs that are often best answered with reference to empirical evidence collected through applied, or operations research (OR). This paper provides a review of the three main OR approaches currently being used in sub-Saharan Africa: diagnostic or needs assessment studies; experimental pilot studies; and intensive technical assistance for problem-solving and institutional development. The extent to which these OR approaches can play a role in family planning program development to improve and expand service delivery activities is discussed, and examples where these approaches have been used are given.     

The quality of life in historical perspective France: 1695–1990

Attempts to evalute the quality of life in historical perspective have been hindered by the absence of data on the perceptions that people held about their well-being as well as by the absence of a broad base of social indicators concerning their physical environment. Given these constraints, in this paper we develop a framework for discussing the well-being of the inhabitants of Aix-en-Provence during the past three centuries. We discuss the quality of life implications of the historical changes in life styles as expressed in the socio-economic structure and in family and work arrangements as well as those based on a limited knowledge of their physical environment as measured by the Physical Quality of Life Index.We presented an earlier version of this paper in Bielefeld, Germany at the XIII World Congress of Sociology, July, 1994. Grand Valley State University provided financial support for research and travel. We thank the staffs of the various French archives who helped us locate historical documents. Bernard Bernos of the University of Provence suggested several historical works that provided us with useful insights about the evolution of human well-being in France. Our longtime colleague and mentor, Doh Shin, located references for us when we were far from an American library and contributed extensive intellectual counsel from which we benefitted enormously.     

Issues in Evaluating Importance Weighting in Quality of Life Measures

For most empirical research investigating the topic of importance weighting in quality of life (QoL) measures, the prevailing approach has been to use (1) a limited choice of global QoL measures as criterion variables (often a single one) to determine the performance of importance weighting, (2) a limited option of weighting methods to develop importance weighting, and (3) a limited number of domains to construct the (formative-indicator) measures. Although limitations resulted from a limited choice of global QoL measures as criterion variables to determine the performance of importance weighting and a limited option of weighting methods to develop importance weighting have been recognized previously, little attention has been paid to the impact of non-comprehensive domains in QoL measures constructed based on the formative-indicator approach. Using empirical data, this article revealed the potential impacts of non-comprehensive domains on the evaluation of importance weighting in QoL measures. Results presented in this article showed that both of the two most popular methods of evaluating the performance of importance weighting in QoL measures, correlation and moderated regression analysis, could produce misleading results in the situation when QoL measures constructed using the formative-indicator approach did not include comprehensive domains. Issues discussed in this article are of great importance to research in the field of QoL, especially on the topic of importance weighting in QoL measures.     

The social meaning of social indicators

While new modes of data processing have provided reams of data, there has been relatively less effort in seeking to comprehend the social meaning of results of empirical work. A set of previously developed indicators of urban social structure is here examined for its link to theory, and to the social structure of the city itself. The original indicators (size, social class, racial composition and community maturity) were empirically derived. In this paper, each is taken in turn, and explored with respect to several possible social meanings. Size, for example, is considered to be itself an indicator, and an imperfect one, for system complexity; percent non-white is seen to be itself an indicator for a slowdown in the mobility process, or a slower social metabolism. These and other results are suggestions, with illustrations, but not conclusive support, from other than the original data. While it is hoped that the theoretical suggestions may themselves be of interest, it is also hoped that approach itself can indicate the fertility and usefulness of going back to theory once empirical measures have been developed.     

Exploring the Quality of Life of People in North Eastern and Southern Thailand

The assumption that development brings not only material prosperity but also a better overall quality of life lies at the heart of the development project. Against this, critics assert that development can undermine social cohesion and threaten cultural integrity. Rarely, however, is the impact of development on well-being rigourously analysed using empirical data. This is what the Wellbeing in Developing Countries Group at the University of Bath aims to do drawing on fieldwork carried out in four developing countries, which addresses the themes of resources, needs, agency and structure, and subjective Quality of life (QoL). The first phase of the QoL research in Thailand aimed to explore the categories and components of quality of life for people from different backgrounds and locations with the aim of developing methods for QoL assessment in the third phase of the WeD QoL research. The study presents data obtained from rural and peri-urban sites in Southern and Northeastern Thailand (two villages in Songkhla and three in Khon Kaen, Mukdaharn, and Roi-et). Participants were divided into six groups by gender and age, and were divided again by religion (Buddhist and Muslim) and wealth status in the South. Data collection was conducted between October and December 2004 using focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews, and the Person Generated Index. Content analysis was used for data analysis. The use of a qualitative approach enabled the gathering of empirical data that reflects the sources of difficulty and happiness in the lives of participants. Respondents identified 26 aspects to their quality of life, including family relations, health and longevity, income and having money, jobs, housing, education, debt, and so on. The results reveal clear similarities and differences in the role of traditions, religious beliefs, and values in the lives of people living in remote rural or peri-urban areas in Northeastern and Southern Thailand. These results, together with the findings from Peru, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh, will inform the rest of the WeD research and be used to develop measures to assess the quality of life of people living in developing countries.     

The effect of normative pressures on fertility

Using longitudinal data from a sample of urban, white, married U.S. couples, this paper shows the effects of normative pressures from family and friends on whether or not the couple had a pregnancy within one year. A comparison of parity-specific and all-parity models indicates that more information and better predictions can be obtained from parity-specific models. Normative pressures predict pregnancy best at zero parity, with progressively attenuated predictions at higher parity. A comparison of models using husband and wife data together shows that two-sex models are better than models using either sex alone. In a variety of different models, normative pressures reported by husbands are better predictors of pregnancy than are normative pressures reported by wives. A comparison of models using aggregated measures of normative pressures with models identifying the separate individual sources of pressures indicates that each treatment provides different insights into the effects of normative pressures, but that predictive power is lost through aggregation.This study was supported by a grant from the Center for Population Research, NICHD (Grant No. N01-HD-42804). Boone Turchi and Karl Bauman were collaborators on the original study. The authors would like to thank Judy Kovenock for data analysis. Requests for reprints should be directed to J. Richard Udry, Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514.     

The influence of psychological and situational factors on the contraceptive behavior of single men: A review of the literature

The study of contraceptive behavior has focused on women with relatively few studies examining the psychological and situational factors that influence male contraceptive behavior. A review of empirical studies indicates the importance of the personality variable of sexual anxiety and the cognitive variables of attitudes toward contraception and sex roles in influencing the contraceptive behavior of single males. However, the situational variable of having an established sexual relationship is the best predictor of whether contraception is used. Although the contributions of attitude and utility theorists have been of substantial assistance in understanding the contraceptive behavior of married couples, the affect-reinforcement theory appears to be more applicable to contraceptive behavior in general. An analysis of the socialization of males and females in terms of utility theory also helps explain the relative failure of adolescent couples in contraception.This research was funded by team grants from Health and Welfare, Family Planning Division, Canada and from Ministère des Affaires Sociales, Quebec. In addition, the second author was supported by a Bourse de I'Enseignement Superieur from the Quebec Government. Address reprint requests to Dolores Gold, Psychology Department, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Boulevard West, Montréal, Québec, H3G 1M8.     

家庭人口老化对碳排放的影响——基于家庭微观视角的实证研究

人口老龄化和全球气候变暖已经成为世界各国共同关注的议题。在我国人口老龄化日益加剧、环境问题也逐渐引起社会各界广泛关注的背景下,家庭层面人口老化与碳排放之间关系值得深入研究。文章从微观家庭结构出发,对家庭内部人口老化与碳排放之间关系进行理论分析,利用中国家庭金融调查数据库(CHFS)2013年的截面数据对人口老化与碳排放的关系进行实证研究。研究结果表明家庭的老化特征与家庭碳排放之间呈现负相关,家庭的老化特征有助于减轻家庭的碳排放水平,老年人与年轻人共同生活的主干家庭更加"节能环保",这一结论与人们的一般感性认识有所不同。因此,应当鼓励年轻人与老年人共同居住,通过老年人的生活方式和消费习惯影响家庭的消费行为和消费结构,使家庭朝着节约环保型转变。本文的结论同时也表明人口老龄化产生的并非都是消极影响,其对社会的影响需要进行全面评估以积极应对老龄社会的到来。     

The Gender Revolution: A Framework for Understanding Changing Family and Demographic Behavior

This article argues that the trends normally linked with the second demographic transition (SDT) may be reversed as the gender revolution enters its second half by including men more centrally in the family. We develop a theoretical argument about the emerging consequences of this stage of the gender revolution and review research results that bear on it. The argument compares the determinants and consequences of recent family trends in industrialized societies provided by two narratives: the SDT and the gender revolution in the public and private spheres. Our argument examines differences in theoretical foundations and positive vs. negative implications for the future. We focus primarily on the growing evidence for turnarounds in the relationships between measures of women's human capital and union formation, fertility, and union dissolution, and consider evidence that men's home involvement increases union formation and fertility and decreases union instability. Although the family trends underlying the SDT and the gender revolution narratives are ongoing and a convincing view of the phenomenon has not yet emerged, the wide range of recent research results documenting changing, even reversing relationships suggests that the gender approach is increasingly the more fruitful one.     

The Contraceptive Role of Breastfeeding

We review (1) neuro-hormonal mechanisms by which breastfeeding postpones the return of ovulation and menstruation after birth, and (2) various statistical procedures used to analyse this effect in human populations. This review reveals that the biology and the statistical procedures are incompatible. We propose a statistical approach, compatible with present knowledge of physiology, that differentiates between ovulation-inhibiting mechanisms at birth and the weakening of these inhibitions thereafter, so that it is possible to investigate the effects on these mechanisms due to breastfeeding and to other determinants such as mother's age. An empirical test with typical recall data indicates that full breastfeeding postpones ovulation longer than does supplemented breastfeeding, and that both have stronger contraceptive effects than has previously been thought.     

An analysis of the size of the family household and family structure in China]

Since 1949, great social and economic changes have taken place in China. The entire economic structure and social relations are no longer the way they used to be. These changes have also had a strong impact on the size of family households and family structure. Major changes are summarized as follows: (1) The size of the present family household has been greatly reduced from its earlier size. The main reason for this reduction in size is the change of the social system. Under the new social system, the natural population growth rate and family structure have shown the greatest change from the past. (2) The major change in family structure is that small families have replaced the traditional large families. Under the large family system, several generations may stay together as one household, and brothers do not divide the large family even after they are married. Under the small family system, a household is normally limited to the parents and their children. With the gradual disappearance of large families, small families are increasing rapidly. Some households with three generations living together are still in existence, and the young and the old may support each other in their daily life. Both in cities and in rural areas, the traditional custom of respecting one's old parents still exists. There must be a value and necessity for the existence of this particular kind of family structure.     

Public perceptions of the ideal number of children for contemporary families

Demographic and family dynamics have been influenced by the recent downturn in average family size. This research examines perceptions of the ideal size for contemporary families and beliefs regarding factors which have contributed to families' decisions to have fewer children. Findings reveal that the two child family is the overwhelming standard chosen by respondents, and that this preference holds for virtually all demographic categories. Three of five reasons offered for smaller families today (expense of children, wives working and better birth control) were viewed as important by over 85% of those sampled.A previous version of this paper was presented at the annual meetings of the Southern Demographic Group, Austin, Texas, October, 1985. Support for computer analyses was provided by the Office of Computer and Information Services, University of Maryland Baltimore County.     

Operationalizing De-commodification and De-familization Outcomes via the Relative Poverty Approach: An Application to Western European Countries

This article develops an approach with which to operationalise the outcomes of de-commodification and de-familisation processes. Since the de-commodification and de-familisation concepts share an emphasis on ‘a socially acceptable standard of living for individuals’ with the notion of relative poverty, the income-poverty indicator has been adopted to develop pertinent national rates. In particular, since de-commodification outcomes concern people with a socially acceptable standard of living independently of sale of their labour power, the national proportions of individuals with an equivalised disposable income above the poverty threshold who have stopped working have been accounted for. On the other hand, given that de-familisation outcomes regard individuals with a socially acceptable standard of living aside from family relationships, the national percentages of persons who actually live alone, or simulated as living alone, with an equivalised disposable income above the poverty threshold have been considered. Moreover, exploiting the equivalised disposable income computation, pertinent micro-simulations are developed to capture the role of the state and the family in de-commodification outcomes, and the contribution of the market and the state to de-familisation outcomes. On the basis of the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions, an empirical application of this approach is then provided. Specifically, data for 16 European countries were used to compute the above-mentioned national rates. Furthermore, we checked whether our outcome figures exhibited any correspondence with the country-groups deriving from the classic welfare regime typologies or more in general with the measures resulting from the social policy structure.