初婚年龄的影响因素分析——基于CGSS2006的研究

本文基于“2006年中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2006）数据,使用事件史分析方法,探讨了城乡居民初婚年龄的变化趋势及其社会经济原因。研究发现,教育、职业和家庭的社会经济特征对初婚年龄有着显著的影响,并表现出性别和户籍差异。教育程度对女性初婚年龄的推迟效应大于男性,高等教育对农村户籍女性初婚年龄的推迟效应大于城市户籍女性,技术类职业相比非技术非管理类职业,对农村户籍男性居民的初婚年龄有着显著的提前效应。在城市户籍居民中,父母的教育程度越高,子女的初婚年龄越晚;兄弟姐妹越多,初婚年龄越早。对城市和农村户籍居民而言,父亲从事管理类职业对儿子的初婚年龄均有显著的提前效应,而且对农村户籍居民的影响要高于城市户籍居民。     

Understanding Mexican‐American Marriage Patterns Using a Life‐Course Approach*

Objective. Guided by a life‐course framework that incorporates the interconnection between marriage, migration, and other transitions, we critically examine the familism explanation for the earlier age at marriage among Mexican Americans. Methods. We compare the marriage patterns of Mexican immigrants derived from the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) to those of women living in Mexico derived from the Mexican Census. We then use data from the NSFG to estimate proportional hazard models of marriage using fixed variables such as parent's education and time‐varying variables such as school enrollment. Results. Analyses show that the Mexican immigrant population marries earlier than Mexicans who do not migrate to the United States. In addition, the U.S.‐born Mexican population has lower marriage rates than whites once family background characteristics associated with early marriage are controlled and Anglos are no less likely than Mexican Americans to marry in response to a pregnancy. Conclusion. We find reason to doubt that ethnic differentials are driven by a strong attachment to marriage, female chastity, and the “traditional” family. Although cultural factors may play an important role, researchers need to more carefully specify the aspects of Mexican culture that might encourage marriage and how these factors interrelate with economic and demographic constraints.     

The status of women in rural India: a village study

This paper examines the status of rural Indian women and how their status has been affected by progressive legislation designed to remove previous inequalities. A socio-demographic survey of women and adolescent girls was conducted in a Maharashtrian village of 2100 people in 1975-76. The village economy was based on subsistence agriculture with 94% of females and 84% of males engaged in farming. Data were collected by means of participant observation and questionnaire interviews. Overall levels of education were low, with only 5% of females and 15% of males having any high school education. Over 50% of females had received no education, 28% of males. Inequalities between males and females persisted throughout all age groups but were less obvious at younger ages. 97% of women felt that boys should attend school beyond the primary level, 75% said that girls should. Many adolescent girls said they would like to continue their education but admitted that they would soon marry and advanced education was unnecessary. 62% of women favored modern medicine but 57% still felt that smallpox was a punishment from the gods; fewer educated women than illiterate women answered this way. Average age of marriage was 14.1 years; 69% of the women felt that girls should be married by age 16, but 70% believed that boys should not marry until age 18 so that they can complete their studies. 62% of women who had discussed family size with their husbands also approved of eating together and 55% felt that joint discussion was preferable. Only 25% felt that large families meant greater happiness and on the average 3.4 children (2 sons, 1.4 daughters) were preferred; over 75% said that they would exceed their ideal family size if they had borne only daughters. The local family planning program was approved by 90% of the women and use has increased from 13-43% from 1966-76. Low caste was related to low levels of education for women, but there is little difference in the number of children ever born; the disparity is mainly in regard to living children with mortality highest among lower castes. Age differences existed such as: 52% of the youngest group can read and write compared to only 14% of older women, age at marriage is rising, and older women had more communication with their husbands, but also had larger families. It was found in this study that: 1) attitudes were more modern than behavior, and 2) modern practices most practical to apply to their daily lives were more easily accepted. What is needed is a broad-based educational program to demonstrate current failures to observe the legislation favoring greater equality for women. Rural schools should help to transmit modern concepts by way of organizing school trips to outside areas. For these women, modern ideas must be proven relevant and acceptable within the village milieu. Also included is a list of social reforms and legislation affecting women's status in India from 1795-present.     

Why do young women marry old men?

This paper presents an overlapping generations household model with positive assortative matching (richer individuals marry richer partners), incomplete information about partner’s type (it takes time to reveal income-earning capabilities of individuals) and a gender pay gap on the labor market (men are more likely to end up with a high-paying job). In equilibrium, a gender pay gap creates an excess supply of desirable husbands and women marry early to increase their chance of being matched with an ideal partner, which results in a gender age gap on the marriage market. A modified model with asymmetric information yields a similar result. An extended model where individuals have an option to remain single (the marriage market does not necessarily clear in equilibrium) yields a similar result as well.     

Fetal Positions: Unraveling the Influence of Religion on Premarital Pregnancy Resolution*

Objective. This study illustrates the ways religiosity and denominational affiliation influence the probability that a young woman will have an abortion. Methods. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), measures of sexual behavior, out‐of‐wedlock pregnancy, and out‐of‐wedlock pregnancy resolution are regressed on religiosity and denominational affiliation. Results. Religiosity indirectly reduces the likelihood that a woman will have an abortion by reducing the probability that she will have an out‐of‐wedlock pregnancy. Among women who conceive out of wedlock, religiosity increases the likelihood of marriage before birth, and thereby reduces the probability of abortion. However, among women who conceive out of wedlock and do not marry before birth, religiosity is unrelated to the probability of having an abortion. Conclusions. Religiosity affects the probability that a woman will obtain an abortion more through its influence on choices about sex and marriage, and less through its influence on attitudes about abortion.     

Twice chosen: Spouse matching and earnings among women in first and second unions

This study examines spouse matching for females in second order marriages or cohabitating relationships. It is based on detailed data from longitudinal Swedish population registers. We follow women who marry, divorce, and subsequently remarry compared to women who marry and remain married over the course of the study interval. The earnings of both groups, along with the earnings of their respective husbands, are modeled on the basis of data in the year prior to their marriages. From the regressions we obtain spouse-to-be pairs of earnings residuals and measure the correlation between spouses within each marital regime. Overall, we find significant positive residual correlations for both sample partitions. The correlation is smaller for the first of two marriages for women who divorce than for women who marry and remain married. For the second of successive marriages, however, the correlation is larger than that for women who marry but once. Also for twice-married women, we find evidence of matching between successive husbands. Women who marry men with unmeasured positive earnings capacities, in the event of divorce, tend to select and match in a similar fashion the second time around.     

The socio-cultural context of child marriage in a Bangladeshi village

This article focuses on the reasons for child marriage in a Bangladeshi village. Although the mean age of marriage for women in Bangladesh is currently 20.2, nearly half of all girls are married before the age of 18. In Bangladesh, female sexuality is controlled through early marriage and the custom of purdah , which limits the social interactions between men and women. The methodology of this research was participant observation, supplemented by questionnaires, discussions, interviews and the construction of case studies. The study was conducted in a village in Bangladesh, and looked at why the rural people of Bangladesh marry off their daughters at an early age, whether they think that they will profit from it, and how. Cost-benefit analysis in exchange theory provides the theoretical framework. This study finds that child marriage occurs as a result of the profit-making motive of the people of Bangladesh, despite the huge costs to the individuals involved, the local community and society as a whole.     

家庭背景与教育：婚姻中地位交换的性别与时期差异

本文利用2018年“中国家庭追踪调查”（CFPS）数据,使用对数线性模型,分析了1978～2018年家庭背景与自身教育在择偶过程中地位交换的性别与时期差异。研究发现,在跨越出身阶层与自身教育地位的异质婚中,夫妻一方会利用自身的相对教育地位优势交换另一方的相对出身阶层优势,这支持了地位交换论。1978～1991年结婚的夫妻中,女性更多通过相对教育优势交换男性的相对出身优势。随着时间的推移,出身阶层与教育在择偶过程中的地位交换强度不断增强,但更多体现在男性通过自身相对教育优势交换女性相对出身优势的婚配模式上,而女性的这一婚配模式呈先降后升趋势。可见,随着时代变迁,家庭背景在女性的向上婚姻流动中扮演着越来越重要的角色。     

Female entrepreneurship: business,marriage and motherhood in England and Wales, 1851–1911

ABSTRACT

This article offers a new perspective on what it meant to be a business proprietor in Victorian Britain. Based on individual census records, it provides an overview of the full population of female business proprietors in England and Wales between 1851 and 1911. These census data show that around 30% of the total business population was female, a considerably higher estimate than the current literature suggests. Female entrepreneurship was not a uniform experience. Certain demographics clustered in specific trades and within those sectors employers and own-account proprietors had strikingly different age, marital status and household profiles. A woman’s life cycle event such as marriage, motherhood and widowhood played an important role in her decision whether to work, the work available to her and the entrepreneurial choices she could make. While marriage and motherhood removed women from the labour force, they had less of an effect on their levels of entrepreneurship. Women who had young children were more entrepreneurial than those who had none, and entrepreneurship rates rose with the arrival of one child and continued to rise the more children were added to the family.     

唐代商人婚姻发微

唐代士族与新兴贵族均不屑与商人结为婚媾,表明商人与社会上层联姻之难;中唐以后民营妓馆日趋兴盛,娼妓随之渐趋向近代意义的妓女转化,商人在与娼妓通婚的同时也彰显了自身之贱;在以上商人婚姻两股细流而外,与地位相同或相近之人联姻则是包括唐代在内的中国传统社会商人婚姻的主流。唐代商人婚姻状况是商人阶层弹性较强的体现之一。     

The politics of marital name change

Each year, millions of women face the decision whether or not to change their names after marriage. One study found that region, gender role traditionalism, career orientation, and educational attainment predicted name changes (Johnson and Scheuble, 1995). Another line of research discovered that women who changed their names were perceived as less ambitious and less competent, but more caring than women who did not change their name (Noordewier et al., 2010). Despite the prevalence and importance of this decision, we know very little about marital name change among political leaders. In this study, we take a preliminary look at marital name change in the political arena by focusing on name changing among women serving in the U.S. House and U.S. Senate. We find that half of female legislators keep their name after marriage, and that Democrats, racial minorities, legislators who come from political families, legislators who were married later in life, and legislators who were first elected to office at a younger age are more likely to keep their names.     

Sex after divorce: older adult women’s reflections

People who divorce experience a number of negative impacts, and yet divorce also offers opportunities for growth and transformation. This qualitative study of older adult women offers the possibility that divorce may be sexually empowering, especially for women, based on in-depth interviewing of women who had gone through one or more divorces. Detailed examples of the experiences of fourteen women with divorce and sexual expression are offered, focusing on in which situations divorce might be empowering and how it could contribute to sexual exploration and satisfaction. Overall, for the fourteen women in the study who had experienced divorce, the quality of sex in the marriage impacted the quality of sexual expression after the divorce. Also, these findings supported the idea of transformational learning through divorce, and expand divorce-stress-adjustment and transformational learning perspectives to apply more specifically to sexual expression. Understanding possible impacts of divorce over the lifespan, including strengths-based aspects, is important for social workers as the population they serve ages.     

Intent to marry inter-racially: A test of dependence model of relationships among female sex workers and female office workers in Bangkok,Thailand

This study tests the dependence model of relationships that hypothesizes that Thai female sex workers (FSW) intend to marry inter-racially because of their dependence on security, esteem and belonging needs satisfaction. One hundred and fifty FSW from bars and a control group of 150 female office workers (FOW) in Bangkok participated in the study. While the two groups do not differ in age profile, the FOW group is better educated and earns higher income. FSW perceive higher need satisfaction from inter-racial marriage and have higher level of intent to marry inter-racially than do FOW. LISREL modeling is used to test direct and mediated models of relationships between need satisfaction, family and friends’ approval and intent to marry inter-racially. Results show that needs satisfaction directly influences intent to marry inter-racially, and family and friends’ approval influences intent to marry inter-racially through the mediating effect of needs satisfaction. The results support the dependence model of relationships and the importance of support by family and friends.     

新伦理与旧角色:五四新女性身份认同的困境(英文)

五四新女性是在学校这一现代教育平台由新文化启蒙话语塑造而成,她们的意识形态认同来自新文化,是以个人主义为核心的正义伦理;而她们的性别认同及相应的关怀伦理,却使其对“旧道德”下的女性同类有更多同情。为实现个人权利、维护神圣恋爱,她们“忽略”名分、委屈尊严,在新旧道德的模糊地带与有妇之夫结成特殊婚姻。而非正常婚姻关系的缺憾,爱情中隐含的性别等级,个人自由与关怀伦理的对立与冲突等,都导致她们陷入认同危机。新女性身份认同的困境,体现了“五四”正义伦理的道德局限,而五四文学表达的某种匮乏,亦源自这个局限。     

影响城镇女性就业的微观因素及其变化：1995年与2002年比较

20世纪90年代中期以来,中国城镇劳动力市场结构发生了巨大的变化,女性的劳动参与率大幅下降。本研究利用1995和2002年“中国城镇居民收入调查”数据,检验了教育获得、家庭责任（婚姻和子女）和家庭经济状况三项个人或家庭因素对女性就业决策的影响以及它们效应的变化情况。研究发现,在1995年至2002年间,教育的正面效应变小,即教育对女性就业的影响力下降,但婚姻和家庭经济状况对女性就业的影响力上升。对照1995年, 2002年时家庭收入高的已婚妇女更有可能不工作,表明这是城镇女性就业决策走向理性化的一个过程。另外,作者并不认同“沮丧的工人”观点,认为失去正式工作的低收入家庭女性因生活所迫更可能进入非正式劳动力市场继续就业,而不是对再就业失去信心而永久退出劳动。     

What should we call our kids? Choosing children’s surnames when parents’ last names differ

We examine the last and middle names given to first-born sons and daughters in a sample of 600 married women selected from the staff directory of a university system. Women with unconventional marital surnames were more likely to include their birth surname in their child’s name than were women who took their husband’s last name at marriage. Around 90% of women with an unconventional marital surname still gave their children their husband’s surname. Among women who selected an unconventional last name, a number of variables correlated with whether or not the child’s name contained the mother’s birth surname, including type of last name used, gender role attitudes, political liberalism, religiosity, importance of last name to the woman’s self-concept, feminist motivations for the woman’s last name choice, and education of the mother and her husband. Logistic regression analysis found that self-identification on political liberalness and husband’s education were the most powerful predictors, reducing the other effects to nonsignificant levels.     

Reactions to the O. J. Simpson Verdict: "Mindless Tribalism" or Motivated Inference Processes?

The difference in opinion between White Americans and Black Americans as to whether O. J. Simpson is guilty of murder can be understood within the context of the literature on motivated inference. Both self-serving and group-serving motives can lead to bias in how people gather, interpret, and integrate evidence. The current study revealed that the relative salience of race and gender in women's self-concepts (measured by the Twenty Statements Test) was associated with different beliefs about Simpson's innocence or guilt. Although Black women were more likely than White women to believe that Simpson was not guilty, this was more true for Black women who spontaneously self-identified in terms of race. Similarly, when gender was an accessible aspect of identity, women were more likely to believe that Simpson was guilty. High need for cognition (i.e., the tendency to engage in effortful cognitive activity) actually magnified some of these differences.     

士商联姻背后折射的求官心理--析"三言""二拍"关于士商联姻的小说

在传统的"士农工商"四民中,居首位的"士"与末位的"商"其社会地位不可同日而语。然而在明代尤其是明中叶以后,出现了穷士子与富商联姻的现象。由于科举流通机制的壅滞,导致士子久困场务而使其经济状况日渐困窘,为完成举业,迫切需要获得经济上的资助,于是便渴望与富室之女偕秦晋之好。富商们为在封建社会"抑商"政策下获得更广阔的发展空间,迫切需要跻身官宦之列,以求得政治上的庇护,于是他们把视线投向了极具培养价值的有才学的穷士子身上。而士商联姻的背后体现了他们共同的求官心理。     

Variability in the Inter‐group Attitudes of White Children: What We Can Learn from Their Ethnic Identity Labels

The current study examined the ethnic identity of White (N = 120), Latino (N = 87), and African‐American (N = 65) children and early adolescents (aged = 9–14 years), with an emphasis on whether the specific ethnic label White children used to describe themselves might reflect differences in their inter‐group attitudes and whether those differences mirror group differences between White children and children in ethnic minority groups. Results indicated that White children who identified with a minority label (i.e., White biracial, hyphenated American, ethnic/cultural/religious label) had more positive ethnic identities, were more aware of discrimination, and were less likely to show biases in their perceived similarity to in‐group and out‐group peers than youth who identified as White or American. In many instances, White children who identified with a minority label did not differ from ethnic minority youth. In addition, although all participants were more positive about their ethnic in‐group than out‐groups, children who identified their ethnicity as American were less positive about out‐groups relative to other children. Taken together, the findings indicate that children's self‐chosen ethnic identity is as important as their ascribed ethnic or racial identity in predicting their inter‐group attitudes.     

社会转型期门当户对择偶观的选择偏好——社会交换理论视角下“剩女”现象浅析

门当户对一直是传统社会人们选择配偶、缔结姻缘的度量规则,是提高婚姻质量和维护社会稳定的重要机制。目前中国处于传统社会向现代社会转型的快速推进期,与传统社会不同,门当户对的内容发生了很大的改观,即摒弃了旧时代落后封建成分,融入了新时代进步理性成分,基于对门当户对择偶观念的高度认同,社会交换理论可以对都市“剩女”现象做出合理的解释。