Gender, Hierarchy, and Leadership: An Introduction

Although women's status has improved remarkably in the 20th century in many societies, women continue to lack access to power and leadership compared with men. This issue reviews research and theory concerning women's leadership. The articles included in the issue provide evidence of bias in the evaluation of women, discuss effects of gender stereotypes on women's influence and leadership behaviors, and evaluate strategies for change. This introductory article provides a brief summary of changes in women's status and power in employment and education and the absence of change at the upper echelons of power in organizations. Also included is an outline of the contributions of the other articles in the issue.     

男民工与阶层、社会性别、性的主体建构

农民工的“性”问题日益受到社会的关注。本文基于北京地区四个工地136位民工的访谈,以工地男民工“谈小姐”为切入点,将“谈小姐”视为男民工日常生活中的言说实践,以扎根理论的视角来探究“谈话”这种日常活动的建构意义。本文并不停留于男民工对“小姐”形象（谈论的客体）的构建,而是更进一步地探讨：（1）在“谈小姐”的言说实践过程中男民工如何构建出自身的阶层地位、社会性别与性文化;（2）分析阶层、社会性别、性这三者的关系。通过这种主体建构的呈现,本文试图揭示男民工如何寻找自己在这个社会中的定位,以及寻找现实生活中积极的生存策略。     

The Longitudinal Interplay between Bullying,Victimization, and Social Status: Age‐related and Gender Differences

The current study examined the longitudinal interplay between bullying, victimization, and social status (acceptance, rejection, and perceived popularity) over the course of 1 year. Cross‐lagged path models were estimated for two cohorts, covering grades 3–6 (N = 3904, M age = 11.2 years) and grades 7–9 (N = 4492, M age = 14.4 years). Comparisons between cohorts and by gender were conducted. The results of this study corroborate the complexity of the longitudinal interplay between bullying, victimization, and social status in showing that direction and strength of associations differ by type of peer status, age, and gender. Conclusions cannot be drawn without taking these differences into account. The findings are discussed according to these differences, and directions for future research are provided.     

Gender, Ethnicity, and Power

Group-based power is generally associated with three types of group distinctions: adult-child, gender, and ethnicity. We argue that gender-based power is not comparable to ethnic-based power, in part because the forms and degree of institutional discrimination experienced by men and women of subordinate ethnic groups are not similar to one another, and in part because stereotypes and categorization processes pertaining to gender are not comparable across ethnic groups. Finally, in experiments using college students as participants, we show that whether applicants are placed into occupations that would enhance or attenuate group-based inequality depends jointly on job applicants' ethnicity and gender. Implications for theories of inequality based on gender and ethnicity and the relationship of gendered power to other group-based forms of power are discussed.     

Gender, Values, and Environmentalism

Objective . The social psychological values altruism, self-interest, traditionalism, and openness to change are key correlates of environmental concern and proenvironmental behavior. We investigate the relationship between gender and these values to better understand gender differences in environmentalism. We consider both gender differences in value priorities (differences in mean response on value scales) and differences in the meaning of values (differences in the factor structure of values) as well. Methods . Our analysis is based on data from a random-digit dialed national telephone survey of U.S. adults conducted in 1994. We examine differences in factor structure of values for a group of 145 white men and 200 white women using confirmatory factor analysis and differences in mean value scores using multivariate analysis of variance. Results . We find no substantial differences in value factor structure, but differences in value priorities, with women ranking altruism as more important than men. Conclusions . Our analysis supports work that focuses on mean differences in environmentalism across genders without examining gender differences in factor structure, although further examination of gender differences in factor structure is warranted. Our results also highlight the importance of gender differences in altruism as a basis for gender differences in environmentalism.     

Gender,risk and stereotypes

This paper reports results from an economic experiment where respondents are asked to make choices between risky outcomes for themselves and others. We investigate whether subjects’ own risk preferences and gender stereotypes are reflected in the predictions they make for the risk preferences of others and the way this occurs. When predicting other people’s risk preferences, the respondents tend to use a combination of their own risk preferences and stereotypes. Moreover, when making risky choices for others, the respondents generally use a combination of their own risk preferences and their average predicted risk preference of the targeted group.

Socioeconomic Status,Gender Inequality and Women's Mental Health: Some Findings from the Canberra Mental Health Survey

Data from the Canberra Mental Health Survey are utilized to answer questions concerning the mental health status of women (especially married women). Using the Langner Scale as the main index it is shown that there is a complex relationship between the socio-economic status of a married woman's occupation, and the status of her husband's job. It is also shown that there is an association between sex, marital status and mental health that runs in the direction of Jessie Bernard's summary ‘marriage is good for men, but not for women’.     

工作-家庭冲突、性别角色与工作满意度——基于第三期中国妇女社会地位调查的实证研究

本文使用2010年第三期中国妇女社会地位调查数据,研究了工作-家庭冲突对工作满意度的影响及其性别差异,发现来自工作和家庭两方面的角色压力是引发工作-家庭冲突的主要原因,而且无论是因工作影响家庭,还是因为家庭耽误工作,员工都会对工作表达不满。与男性员工相比,工作压力和家庭压力会使女性员工陷入更为严重的工作-家庭冲突,而且女性员工也更可能因为工作影响家庭而降低对工作的满意度。这些发现不仅为工作-家庭冲突及其相关后果的理论研究提供了丰富的经验证据,还为各级管理人员激励员工士气和提高组织绩效提供了很多实践上的启示。     

家庭背景与教育：婚姻中地位交换的性别与时期差异

本文利用2018年“中国家庭追踪调查”（CFPS）数据,使用对数线性模型,分析了1978～2018年家庭背景与自身教育在择偶过程中地位交换的性别与时期差异。研究发现,在跨越出身阶层与自身教育地位的异质婚中,夫妻一方会利用自身的相对教育地位优势交换另一方的相对出身阶层优势,这支持了地位交换论。1978～1991年结婚的夫妻中,女性更多通过相对教育优势交换男性的相对出身优势。随着时间的推移,出身阶层与教育在择偶过程中的地位交换强度不断增强,但更多体现在男性通过自身相对教育优势交换女性相对出身优势的婚配模式上,而女性的这一婚配模式呈先降后升趋势。可见,随着时代变迁,家庭背景在女性的向上婚姻流动中扮演着越来越重要的角色。     

State Gender Inequality,Socioeconomic Status and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in India: A Multilevel Analysis

While a growing body of literature has investigated the health impact of intimate partner violence (IPV), less has been written on the social determinants of IPV. The authors use multilevel modeling methods to analyze data from a sample of 83,627 women in India to examine the socioeconomic and demographic patterning of the state‐ and neighborhood‐level variation in, and the state‐ and/or neighborhood‐level characteristics related to, IPV. This study finds social gradients in IPV in which women who are uneducated, from marginalized castes, and living in poor households have higher likelihood of reporting IPV than those living in advantaged circumstances. The results also show differences in IPV between neighborhoods and between states that are partially explained by state levels of gender inequality. The results suggest that changing cultural norms to promote the status of women and increasing the educational and economic opportunities for all people could decrease the prevalence of IPV.     

Socialization of Physical and Social Aggression in Early Adolescents' Peer Groups: High‐status Peers,Individual Status,and Gender

The influence of high‐status peers on a target individual's physical and manipulative social aggression in peer groups was examined in a diverse sample of seventh‐grade students. A total of 245 individual members belonging to 65 groups were included in analyses. Aggression was assessed by peer and victim nominations in the fall and spring semesters of seventh grade. High‐status peers rather than low‐status peers in a group had a strong influence on individual members' physical and social aggression. High‐status peers were particularly influential on low‐status individual members' social aggression. A similar pattern was found for physical aggression in boys' groups. These findings imply that high‐status members' aggression rather than the average of all members' may better represent the group norm. Special attention needs to be given to high‐status aggressive adolescents in future intervention and prevention of aggression in schools.     

Gender, Interpersonal Power, and Social Influence

This article reviews research on gender differences in power and their effect on social influence. Evidence indicates that men generally possess higher levels of expert and legitimate power than women do and that women possess higher levels of referent power than men do. These differences are reflected, to some extent, in the influence strategies used by men and women and, more clearly, in gender differences in social influence. Women generally have greater difficulty exerting influence than men do, particularly when they use influence that conveys competence and authority. These findings indicate that gender differences in influence are mediated by gender differences in power.     

Gender, Financial Risk, and Probability Weights

Women are commonly stereotyped as more risk averse than men in financial decision making. In this paper we examine whether this stereotype reflects gender differences in actual risk-taking behavior by means of a laboratory experiment with monetary incentives. Gender differences in risk taking may be due to differences in valuations of outcomes or in probability weights. The results of our experiment indicate that value functions do not differ significantly between men and women. Men and women differ in their probability weighting schemes, however. In general, women tend to be less sensitive to probability changes. They also tend to underestimate large probabilities of gains more strongly than do men. This effect is particularly pronounced when the decisions are framed in investment terms. As a result, women appear to be more risk averse than men in specific circumstances.     

性别模式与性别平等

引言 性别的平权化轰轰烈烈了将近两个世纪,无论是一轮高过一轮的西方女权运动,还是新中国建国后动用行政力量对男女不平等的干预,至少有一点是共同的,即人们都认为,性别不平等的罪魁祸首是传统的性别模式,只有打破它,才能实现男女平等.但是,无论西方还是我国,不仅性别平等问题难以得到根本解决(虽然在社会事实上性别平等已经大大提高),反而又产生了各种各样的问题,特别是使人们的性别角色认同和实践上发生了混乱.     

性别、权力与海南古代女性

社会性别的后天建构性使其成为分析社会结构的一个重要视角。本文从该角度重新审视海南历史上的汉黎互动,发现这种互动在本质上是两种迥异的性别文化的碰撞。在碰撞过程中,汉文化中的传统女性性别角色被黎文化不断挑战和改变,出现“女主外”的现象,但男性在政治领域的主导使“女主外”行为与支持男性“向学”的目的挂靠,女性“主外”行为的社会价值被贬低。“女耕男儒”的性别关系不但未能使女性获得自由,反而造成另一种性别压迫,最终成为海南独有的“男为尊”父权文化的表现方式。     

Social Status as a Predictor of Race and Gender Stereotypes in Late Childhood and Early Adolescence

We examined race and gender stereotypes in fourth‐, sixth‐ and eighth‐grade White and Black children. The participants reported their perceptions of the competence of Black, White, female and male children in academic domains, sports and music. In general, low‐status groups (girls and Black children) did not endorse stereotypes that reflected negatively on their own group but were likely to report stereotypes that favored their social group. High‐status groups (boys and Whites) endorsed most traditional stereotypes, whether negative or positive, for their social group. Where age differences appeared, older children were more likely than younger children to report traditional stereotypes and status effects were more pronounced. The results are discussed in terms of group enhancement and relationships between social stereotypes and self‐views.     

Gender Identity Disorder,the Gender Binary,and Transgender Oppression: Implications for Ethical Social Work

This article argues that social workers are ethically obligated to serve as allies of transgender and gender-nonconforming communities and, thus, should critically examine the diagnosis of gender identity disorder and the oppression inherent in pathologizing gender nonconformity. Social workers should also consider the oppression inherent in the socially constructed gender binary that is the root of the perceived psychosis in gender nonconformance and should fight against this oppression and, therefore, against that binary. This article proposes several action steps that social workers can take to advocate for the transgender and gender-nonconforming communities.