Educational Opportunities for Rural and Urban Residents in China, 1978-2008： Inequality and Evolution

改革开放以来,随着中国教育规模的扩张,城乡居民的受教育水平逐年提高,但教育不平等问题并未得到有效改善。本文使用CGSS2008数据,检验户籍、家庭社会经济地位、父母受教育年限以及兄弟姐妹数量等因素对初中、高中和大学三个教育阶段升学机会的影响及其作用在1978至2008年期间的变化趋势。研究发现,初中升学机会的城乡差异没有变化,高中和大学升学机会的城乡不平等有扩大趋势;父亲职业地位对子女升学机会的影响保持不变,表明教育获得的阶层差异自1978年以来没有发生明显变化;父母受教育年限对子女教育获得的作用显著,而且其作用持续上升;因兄弟姐妹数量差异导致的教育不平等也有上升趋势。要理解改革后中国教育不平等的结构及其演变,除讨论阶层不平等外,尚需关注影响居民教育决策的微观机制。     

族群与教育不平等:我国西部少数民族教育获得的一项实证研究

摘 要：本文通过梳理国内外有关族群（民族）分层的文献,认为有必要把“民族”纳入到中国的市场转型和社会分层理论框架之中,并从教育获得的角度对这一问题进行实证分析。影响中国少数民族教育获得的因素主要包括：城乡地域区隔、职业结构（阶层）、文化差异和国家政治进程（政策变迁）。基于对2004年中国西部抽样调查数据分析,作者发现：（1）基础教育阶段入学的族群差异主要由城乡差别和阶层不平等造成,族群不平等已不显著;（2）少数民族子女高中升学概率依然显著低于汉族,其原因部分在于城乡、地域和阶层因素,部分在于少数民族和汉族的文化差异（如语言环境）等因素;（3）与汉族教育不平等的代际传递模式不同,少数民族教育不平等的代际传承以资源转化模式为主,从而影响了不同族群在教育扩展中的获益程度。总体而言,虽然中国西部少数民族的教育获得仍显著落后于汉族,但其教育不平等更多地来自城乡和阶层之间的差异。     

收入差异下的老年心理健康不平等及影响机制

基于2005-2014年中国老年健康影响因素跟踪调查的四次追踪数据,采用潜变量增长曲线模型,分析了基于收入差异的老年心理健康不平等变动趋势及影响机制。结果显示：第一,由收入差异导致的老年心理健康不平等随年龄增长呈收敛趋势,符合年龄中和效应理论;第二,身体失能是年龄中和效应存在的关键原因,身体失能比增龄在缓和由收入差异导致的心理健康不平等中的调节作用更大;身体失能降低了收入对老年心理健康不平等的影响作用;与低失能老年人相比,在高失能老年人中基于收入差异的心理健康不平等随年龄增长的收敛趋势更加明显。因此,应推动全人口、全周期健康管理,提高低失能老年群体的收入水平,并完善高失能老年群体的心理慰藉服务体系和社会功能补偿机制。     

自评一般健康的信度和效度分析

本文利用2008年“中国流动与健康调查”（IMHC）数据,分析了自评一般健康指标的信度和效度。研究发现,自评一般健康具有较好的信度,被访者先后两次回答的结果高度一致,两次回答结果的微小变动表现为随机性的波动,而非系统性偏差。该指标在一定程度上会受到调查中题目次序效应的影响。关于自评一般健康指标效度的分析发现,该指标能够有效反映被访者自我感知的各种健康状态和个体既有的关于自身健康的知识,但不能很好地反映个体无法感知的机体变化等健康问题。自评一般健康存在较为复杂的回答偏误问题,受不同年龄、社会经济地位群体关于健康的评价标准、期望与认知差异的影响,其回答结果在不同人群中的可比性值得商榷。     

多代流动效应：来自中国的证据

多代流动是社会流动中的重要议题。本文利用中国劳动力调查2012年数据,检验了不同世代社会流动的多代效应模式。研究发现,1980年以前出生的世代累积性的优势或劣势主要表现在两代之间,多代的效应并不明显;但随着市场经济的确立,累积性不平等的效应从两代之间扩展到三代之间,即在控制了父代的阶层地位后,祖代-孙代的影响效应仍显著存在,祖代职业阶层越高,孙代进入高职业阶层的可能性越大。此外,研究发现教育是个体实现向上流动的重要变量,但教育获得本身受家庭背景的影响。文章从实证和理论两方面的论述有助于加深对中国社会流动与代际不平等的理解。     

中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异研究

一直以来,中国城乡居民教育获得的性别差异逐渐缩小,最近甚至开始出现女性超过男性的趋势。利用“2008年中国综合社会调查”（CGSS2008）数据,本研究探讨中国城乡居民教育获得性别不平等的变化趋势,并着重检验影响教育获得的各主要因素是否存在性别差异。研究发现：第一,性别不平等存在城乡差异,农村户口居民的性别不平等程度高于非农户口居民;第二,父亲的职业地位指数（ISEI）或父母的受教育水平越低,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;第三,兄弟姐妹人数越多的群体,教育获得的性别不平等越严重;最后,不同教育层次入学机会的性别不平等程度也不相同,教育层次越低,升学机会的性别不平等越严重。笔者认为上述教育获得的性别不平等模式来源于不同的社会群体对父权制观念或传统性别角色观念的认同感的差异。     

收入、健康、社会公平感与居民主观幸福感——一个区域差异分析视角

本文运用CGSS2015年的数据,对东部地区、中部地区和西部地区的居民主观幸福感进行比较分析,并从收入不平等、健康和社会公平感等角度探讨了影响居民主观幸福感的因素及其区域差异。实证结果发现:东部地区居民的主观幸福感水平高于中部和西部地区;绝对收入差异对东部和中部地区的居民主观幸福感具有显著影响,对西部地区居民主观幸福感没有显著影响;相对收入对居民主观幸福感的影响具有一定的区域差异性;无论是东部地区还是中部和西部地区,健康自评程度越高,居民的主观幸福感越强,社会公平感知越高,居民的主观幸福感越强;居民主观幸福感在性别、年龄、婚姻和教育上的差异具有区域不平衡的特征。     

中国成年人抑郁症状的社会经济梯度研究——基于“中国家庭追踪调查”2014年和2016年数据

基于"中国家庭追踪调查"(CFPS) 2014年和2016年数据,探讨中国成年人抑郁程度的分布情况及抑郁水平和社会经济地位(个人受教育程度、人均家庭年收入和人均家庭净资产)之间的关系。研究发现,在中国18岁及以上的成年人当中,抑郁的发生率较高(其中23. 4%的人有抑郁症状,4. 6%的人患有抑郁症);个人受教育年限、人均家庭收入和人均家庭净资产越高,则其抑郁水平越低;通过Wagstaff分解法分析各类因素对和收入相关的抑郁不平等的贡献发现,受教育年限、人均家庭收入和人均家庭净资产对抑郁不平等的贡献率依次为23%、22%和33%。此外,社会经济地位对抑郁水平的影响存在群体异质性:不同社会经济地位群体之间的抑郁水平差异随着年龄的增长而逐渐扩大,呈现出发散趋势;女性和农业户籍者通过教育获得的精神健康回报要高于男性和非农业户籍者。     

碳排放视角下我国城市群环境公平状况及关键要素分析——以长三角城市群为例

城市的发展模式和经济发展水平导致碳减排责任的差异，城市间的碳排放评估可以定量解释城市群环境公平的差距。基于泰尔指数和LMDI指数分解法，本文以长三角城市群为例，考察了2011—2020年碳排放视角下我国城市群环境公平的差异，并对造成环境公平差距的关键因素进行了分析。研究结果表明，长三角城市群碳排放不公平差距正逐步缩小，环境不公平状况逐步改善；长三角城市群内部各省份碳排放不公平的差距也逐步缩小，但省份间存在较大的区域差异；影响长三角城市群碳排放不公平的关键因素存在异质性，碳排放强度的降低和工业产业结构优化降低了长三角城市群总体碳排放不公平差距，但城市间的人均收入差异仍然是碳排放不公平差距缩小的重要阻碍因素。当前，长三角城市群碳排放不公平差距虽然呈逐渐缩小的趋势，但是在制定碳减排政策时仍应考虑城市层面的碳排放不平等状况，制定差异化的城市群碳减排政策和明确城市间碳责任分配方式，以促进长三角一体化发展及城市群内部的绿色低碳可持续发展。     

中国城市精英的二元职业路径：1949－1996

最近对于共产主义背景下的职业流动研究表明党员身份和教育对于行政管理职业和专业技术职业的影响是不同的。使用1996年中国城市成年人口全国抽样调查的生活史数据资料，我们发现上述研究结果是十分令人信服的，而且在这两条职业路径间存在着显著的差异。仅仅是现阶段，具有大学学历者成为行政管理精英的机率要高于高中毕业者，但是大学学历始终是获得专业专业技术职位的一个先决条件。另一方面，党员身份始终是获得高行政管理职位的一个先决条件，并且具有党员身份者成为专业技术精英的机率从来也没有提高过。我们还发现，专业技术人员很少转变为行政管理人员，反之亦然。虽然10多年来，两条职业路径之间的差异也有所改变发展，但是仍然维续着。所以，中国的职业流动是一种同对政治机器的忠诚原则相结合而又与现代职业的能力原则相分离的混合物。近些年来的变化是曾经被毛时代所速否定了的一般国家社会主义实践的回复的反映，而不是市场经济影响的反映。     

Socio‐Economic Factors and Mental Health of Young People in India and China: An Elusive Link with Globalization

Globalization and its related social, cultural, and economic changes have significant mental health outcomes for young people. However, mental health disorders among youth are seldom included in the range of problems linked to globalization. It is imperative that these multifaceted associations are considered in light of the substantial and increasing burden of disease caused by mental illness, particularly in Asian countries, which are comparatively young and in next few decades will be the major sources of the growth of world’s young population. The evidence reviewed in this study makes an argument that globalization has increased [relative] poverty and deprivation, social and income inequality, migration, occupational stress, educational competition, and educated unemployment in India and China. Simultaneously there is evidence which shows that these variables are causally linked with mental health of young people. Altogether, these phenomena are accompanied by higher rates of suicide among lower class, migrant, and student youth. This substantiates the proposition that globalization has significant consequences for the mental health of young people. Some interventions for debate and discussion are considered.     

The effect of community organisations’ participation and existence on self-rated health in China: evidence from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study

Using the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study cross-sectional survey in 2011 with an 80.51% response rate, an endogenous logit model is adopted to account for the relationship between social capital and self-rated health and the heterogeneity from gender, age and marital status on individual self-rated health status. Consequently, social capital at both individual and community levels is found to be positively correlated with better subjective self-rated health status. Furthermore, the social capital’s marginal effect of the male, high-income groups, the married are larger than that of the female, rural residents, low-income groups and the divorced. In addition, interclass correlation value from the partition of the fixed and random effect of social capital is significantly, ranging from 3.0 to 5.49%, indicating a significant proportion of the total variance in self-rated health that can be explained by community-level differences.     

Educational attainment and self-rated health in contemporary China: A survey-based study in 2010

Drawing on a nationwide representative data from the Chinese General Social Survey 2010, this research examines the relationship between educational attainment and self-rated health in mainland China. It is shown that educational attainment can significantly promote an individual's self-rated health. Besides, the positive effect of educational attainment on self-rated health is stronger for males and rural residents. Finally, using mediation test, we find that educational attainment can promote an individual's self-rated health by providing better work and economic condition, cultivating a higher level of the sense of self-control, encouraging individuals to pay more attention to potential health issues, raising the frequencies of exercise, and increasing the frequencies of moderate drinking. Nevertheless, neither the access to medical insurance nor the frequencies of smoking significantly mediates between education and the perception of health status.     

Socioeconomic status and the dynamics of preferences for income inequality in the United States, 1978–2016

Although considerable evidence indicates that public preferences for income inequality and redistribution vary across socioeconomic groups (i.e., occupation and income), much less is known about the temporal dynamics of these preferences. The purpose of this study is (a) to examine whether the attitudinal distance between managerial/professional workers and unskilled manual workers has changed (converged or diverged) over time and to (b) explore the reasons for and implications of the dynamics of preferences in the past several decades. Using data from the General Social Survey 1978–2016 (23 time‐points; N = 27,211), this study finds that the influence of occupational class has lost some of its significance in shaping public preferences for income inequality and that the declining effect of occupation can be explained in part by the attitudinal convergence between better‐ and less‐educated citizens. Findings suggest that proequality coalitions across educational boundaries play a remedial role in bridging the occupational divide over government redistribution in the United States.     

Mechanisms of the Effect of Involuntary Retirement on Older Adults’ Self-Rated Health and Mental Health

This study examined mechanisms of the effect of involuntary retirement on self-rated health and mental health among adults aged 50 or older. Using two waves of the Health and Retirement Study (2006 and 2010), we selected a sample of 1,195 individuals working for pay at baseline who responded to a lifestyle questionnaire in both waves. Regression-based path analyses were conducted to test the mediating effects of financial control, positive and negative family relationships, and social integration on the relationship between involuntary retirement and self-rated health and mental health. Results of mediation analyses indicated that transition to involuntary retirement was directly negatively associated with subsequent self-rated health and indirectly negatively associated with mental health via perception of less financial control. Voluntary retirement was indirectly positively associated with both self-rated and mental health via perception of more financial control. No significant direct or indirect effects of retirement were found when retirement was measured with an aggregate measure without specifying its voluntariness. Findings emphasize the importance of specifying the voluntariness of retirement and recognizing the heterogeneity in the mechanisms of involuntary and voluntary retirement.     

On the Brink of Disaster

Abstract

In recent years mental health professionals have become increasingly aware of their role in ameliorating the impact of disaster and have begun to develop models for systematizing interventions. As many have noted, however, these models are largely based on clinical wisdom due to the dearth of empirical data on disaster and its social and psychological consequences. This article describes one model of disaster intervention, the Triple ABCD Model, and provides evidence-based guidelines for determining possible hazards and risks to both individuals and communities. Key factors considered are intentionality, predictability, time frame, degree of threat, location, extent of disruption and destruction, and timeliness and sustainability of the outside resources. Implications for practice include the importance of considering both individual and community factors in assessing risk and resilience; the need for mental health practitioners to exercise both clinical and community building skills when responding to disaster; and the importance of training and education of mental health professionals that include emergency planning and response with a focus on supporting the public at both an individual and community level.     

Explaining the perceived justice of disaster relief policy: An empirical study based on the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake in China

The Chinese government issued generous relief policies after the Wenchuan Earthquake. However, according to my survey, 20.32 per cent (n = 1,949) of the earthquake victim‐survivors felt that they were treated unfairly in receiving government assistance after the earthquake. In the present study, a perceived justice framework was established to explain the victim‐survivors’ perception of justice of the disaster relief policy in China and several hypotheses were developed. The hypotheses were tested empirically using household survey data of the Wenchuan Earthquake. The empirical study found that perceived justice, which is composed of three dimensions (distributive justice, interpersonal justice and informational justice), could directly assess the effect of the disaster relief policy. The results of the empirical study also demonstrated that the most important principle of the disaster relief policy was ‘need distribution’, which was also the most important factor of perceived justice. The study concluded that it is imperative to improve victim‐survivors’ feeling of fairness, policy information delivery and their expectations management when implementing a disaster relief policy.     

Reflections on 9/11: Vulnerability and strength in the “new world order”

One year after the tragedy and horror of the events of September 11, 2001, many still struggle to understand their meaning and long‐term impact. This article provides a brief overview of critical stress debriefings and describes the author's work offering disaster mental health services to survivors of the World Trade Center attacks in the immediate aftermath of the 9/11 disaster. The essay considers gaps in mental health services and the toll that such relief work can take on mental health responders. Implications for healing are considered in the context of the government's crackdown on civil liberties and its plans for war with Iraq.     

The disaster relief and social work after the Wenchuan earthquake in Mainland China

ABSTRACT

This paper mainly focuses on the development of disaster social work in Mainland China and the intervention of social work in disaster relief. Before the Wenchuan earthquake and in the initial stage of post-earthquake, disaster social work was mainly based on individual psychotherapy; from the earthquake to the year of 2012 in which post-earthquake recovery and reconstruction was completed, the disaster relief began to emphasise community building and integration, while the basic framework for disaster social work was also established. Social workers begin to explore the new mode of developmental and localised disaster social work. By combining with the practical experiences from disaster social work, this paper tries to highlight the dilemmas confronting disaster relief in Mainland China and put forward some corresponding countermeasures and suggestions, which could improve the future disaster relief system in Mainland China.     

地震灾区学校社会工作与教师精神健康服务探析

地震灾害发生后,灾区学校教师除了继续扮演好教书育人和学生管理等常规角色之外,还要做好学生的心理疏导工作,成为学生的心理调节者和心理医生,抚慰学生受伤的心灵和灾害带来的冲击、缓解因地震及一系列次生事件带来的情感的、心理的压力。灾区学校教师肩负着如此重要的任务,那么教师自身因地震灾害而带来的心理冲击和精神压力首先应该得到缓解和释放,然后才能在日常教学和学生管理中扮演好自己的角色。笔者通过研究发现,地震灾后学校教师存在着大量的心理社会方面的需求,存在着巨大的精神压力问题。笔者试图探讨通过学校社会工作服务来减轻教师的精神紧张和心理压力,从而达到提升教师精神健康的目的。