Are services to prevent foster care effective?

The prevention of foster care became an important issue for child welfare services during the 1970s. Two main types of prevention models have emerged: crisis intervention programs intended to prevent imminent placement and intensive service programs designed to avert those crisis situations that precipitate placement. A critical analysis of several project evaluations leads to the conclusion that neither model has been markedly successful. Low nominal project placement rates seem attributable to inability to predict placements and to client selection biases. From a strictly financial perspective, preventive services have been considerably more expensive than regular services, including temporary family foster care. Data from a new demonstration project in New Jersey illustrate various problems in providing and evaluating preventive services to families referred to protective service agencies. Implications of the findings for prevention programs and policies are discussed, and a new direction focused on truly early intervention with children and families is proposed.     

Relative foster parents of HIV-affected children

The HIV epidemic is one of the reasons for an increase in relative foster care. Most children of HIV-infected parents are not infected, but both the children and their caregivers are affected by the parent's illness. Twenty-eight caregivers participated in an exploratory, qualitative study of the permanency planning needs of HIV-affected relative foster parents. Of the caregivers, 17 disclosed that the foster child's parent was HIV-infected; 11 caregivers did not report HIV infection in the immediate family. HIV-affected caregivers' greatest need was a more adequate response from social workers and therapy services for the children; nonaffected caregivers needed financial assistance most. More HIV-affected caregivers were considering permanency than nonaffected caregivers. Child welfare workers and relative foster parents need training on HIV's effect on the families so that appropriate services can be accessed as early as possible.     

The invisibility of adolescent sexual development in foster care: Seriously addressing sexually transmitted infections and access to services

Adolescents residing in foster care are at higher risk for acquiring sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and human immune deficiency virus (HIV) compared to their non-foster care peers. A literature review was conducted to determine whether youth residing in foster care face different barriers to sexual health care compared to their peers in the general population and, if so, what those barriers are. The review revealed barriers common to adolescents in general as well as additional barriers specific to the ecosystem of adolescents in foster care. Systemic issues that decreased access to sexual health services included child welfare policies that were either missing or implemented without fidelity; complicated financial factors; barriers to service utilization; lack of collaboration between child welfare and medical professionals; and limited information provided to foster youth on their sexual health and development. Consent and confidentiality issues that foster youth face in seeking sensitive health services also need to be resolved. More research is needed on how to facilitate development of coherent policies and effective practices that promote sexual health care access for adolescents in foster care.     

Adult well-being of foster care alumni: Comparisons to other child welfare recipients and a non-child welfare sample in a high-risk,urban setting

Research has shown that children placed in foster care fall below population norms on many indicators of well-being. Yet few studies have been designed to distill the effects of foster care from conditions that precede foster care. Based on the available evidence, it is also uncertain whether the purported effects of foster care are lasting. This study used data gathered prospectively from an economically disadvantaged, urban cohort to examine whether foster care is associated with decreased educational and economic attainments as well as increased criminality in adulthood. Individuals who were placed in foster care after an indicated allegation of maltreatment were compared to three naturally occurring groups: (a) maltreatment victims who did not reside in foster care, (b) individuals without an indicated maltreatment allegation who were raised in a household with a Child Protective Services (CPS) record, and (c) individuals without an individual or household record of CPS involvement. Using multiple estimation procedures, we found that all participants with a CPS record fared worse in adulthood than their peers without a CPS record. Despite their poor outcomes, foster children functioned as well as other CPS recipients who did not reside in foster care. Our findings indicate that caution is warranted when attributing dysfunction observed in foster children to the effects of foster care. Implications for prevention and intervention within the context of child welfare are discussed.     

Predictors of running away from family foster care

Running away is a frequent but little studied phenomenon among adolescents in foster care. Repeated running from care often leads to premature discharge and homelessness for youth. This article uses cumulative risk theory in the context of normative adolescent development to investigate predicators of running away from foster care. Results indicate risks stemming from individual, foster home, and child welfare system sources, which offer some insight for prevention and intervention.     

Perceived value of a campus-based college support program by students who aged out of foster care

The purpose of this study is to evaluate core components of one college support program at a midwest university from the perspective of student users who have aged out of foster care and to assess the perception of these supports in the context of the program's college graduation rate. Ninety-five students enrolled in the program completed a 44-question survey to evaluate the program's services. Student perceived value of these services is presented along with graduation rates for students from the program. The findings confirm the importance of financial aid, housing, and adult guidance for this population in successfully graduating from college. While the 30% graduation rate for students from the program far exceeds the national average for degree completion of students with a background in foster care, it is below the rate for a comparable first-generation student population at the university. We conclude that while key components of a college support program like financial aid, housing, and trained adult staff guidance are necessary in supporting students with a background in foster care attain postsecondary success, they are not sufficient to adequately explain graduation rates.     

What Happens to Foster Kids: Educational Experiences of a Random Sample of Foster Care Youth and a Matched Group of Non-Foster Care Youth

Older youth often “age out” of foster care when they reach 18 or 21. Then what happens to them? How do their educational experiences during and after high school compare with children raised in intact families? This study used existing longitudinal data from 1980 through 1986 to investigate the high school and post high school experiences of a group of foster care youth and a matched group of youth living with at least one parent. The results were unequivocal: the foster youth dropped out of high school at a much higher rate and were significantly less likely to have completed a GED. The foster care high school graduates received significantly less financial assistance for education from their parents or guardians. Foster youth reported more discipline problems in school and experienced more educational disruption due to changing schools. They were significantly less likely to be in a college preparatory high school track. The adults in the lives of the foster care youth were less likely to monitor homework. These findings have important implications for child welfare policy and practice.     

Therapy Outcome with Children in Foster Care: A Longitudinal Study

The present paper describes a naturalistic study of therapy with children in foster care. The goal was to attempt to begin to understand what happens to children in foster care while they are in therapy. The functioning of all children referred for therapy in a foster care agency was assessed as rated by different informants at different points in time over an 18-month period. These children present with low-level behavior problems but the level and type of problem they present with depends on the person rating the child and the child’s gender and age. Two thirds of the children improve and do so within the early stages of therapy. One third of the children do not improve. The distinguishing feature of this group appears to be the high level of aggressive behaviors reported at intake. Results suggest that improvement depends on the eye of the beholder. These findings are discussed and recommendations for therapeutic and systemic practice are made. The importance of using multiple informants when evaluating the treatment needs of children in care is pointed out as is the need to rethink therapeutic strategies with children that present with high levels of aggressive behavior at intake and show no improvement after the first 6 months of therapy.     

The self-defined experience of secular foster-care services for ultra-religious women in Israel: Using phenomenology to create cultural sensitive services

This paper qualitatively explores how foster parents from a religious minority group – more specifically foster parents from the Jewish ultra-orthodox sector in Israel experience the act of fostering through secular welfare services. Central themes that the women raised include religious spiritual beliefs as enhancing positive meaning of the act of foster care: Ambivalence of other women in the community because of fostering through external state services: The husband and religious leader as a central support due to the spiritual meanings of foster care. The central themes in terms of the secular services were their role as a protective financial base for creating a clear contract concerning the foster care as compared to informal fostering within the community and a culturally sanctioned exposure to psychological concepts and secular childcare practices. Lack of understanding of the secular welfare services of the importance of each group within their community was also stated as a challenge. Overall, the findings reveal the complex ways that these ultra-religious women from a very closed community negotiate and integrate resources from within their community and from the secular foster services outside of their community. Implications for creating culturally adapted secular foster services for Ultra-orthodox Jewish women are discussed, as are the methodological implications of exploring phenomenological experience of minority groups of foster care services as a base for culturally sensitive understanding, is discussed.     

Post-permanency discontinuity: A longitudinal examination of outcomes for foster youth after adoption or guardianship

For over two decades, federal policies and case practices in child welfare have shifted to prioritize legal permanence for children in foster care, and increasing numbers of children have been placed in permanent adoptive or guardianship homes. Despite this change, little research has examined the long-term stability of legally permanent adoptive and guardianship homes for former foster youth. This study used child welfare administrative records to track a population of 51,576 children in Illinois who exited foster care through adoption or guardianship for ten years or until the age of majority. Univariate and bivariate analyses were conducted to describe the population, and a multivariable Cox proportional hazards model was estimated to examine the relationship between child age and discontinuity, controlling for several pre-placement characteristics. Results indicated that the vast majority (87%) of children did not experience post-permanency discontinuity. In addition, African American children and children who had more moves in foster care had a higher hazard of discontinuity, while children placed with siblings and children who spent three or more years in foster care had a lower hazard of discontinuity. Study findings also indicated that prevention efforts should be targeted at families with adolescents. This study contributes significantly to the scant literature on long-term outcomes for adoptive and guardianship families, and suggests several areas for future research.     

Factors Associated with Adoption and Adoption Intentions of Nonparental Caregivers

ABSTRACT

Data from the 2011–2012 National Survey of Children's Health and the 2013 National Survey of Children in Nonparental Care were used to fit a multinomial logistic model comparing three groups to those who never considered adoption: those who ever considered but are not currently planning adoption, those planning adoption, and those who adopted. Adoption may be more likely when the caregiver is a non-kin foster parent, a foster care agency was involved, and/or financial assistance is available. Those with plans to adopt but who have not adopted may face adoption barriers such as extreme poverty, lower education, and being unmarried.     

Enhancing the validity of foster care follow-up studies through multiple alumni location strategies

While family-based placement prevention services, family reunification programs, subsidized guardianship, and aggressive adoption programs are reducing the numbers of children spending long periods of time in substitute care, a significant number of America's children will come of age in foster care. Agencies and policymakers should use research and evaluation to assess the effectiveness of foster care in nurturing healthy adults and to explore ways to improve services. Outcome studies that have focused on locating and interviewing young or middle-aged adults emancipated from foster care have been hampered by modest response rates, limiting the field's ability to evaluate the efficacy of foster care programs. This article describes a set of strategies that were used to achieve higher response rates in two recent follow-up studies.     

Sozialpolitik als Instrument der Geschlechtergerechtigkeit

The German welfare state supports traditionally the male breadwinner model and remunerates continuous full-time employment. Recent developments in social policy like the reform of ??Elterngeld?? (paid parental leave) and the introduction of ??Pflegezeit?? (unpaid care leave) increase the value of unpaid care work done for the family and set incentives to share care work between the partners. Thus, ??Elterngeld?? and ??Pflegezeit?? work against the gender discrimination of the German welfare state and might foster gender equity. But, the analysis shows that the steps towards gender equity are only minor. The sharing of care work, the financial autonomy of the caring parent and the reconciliation of children care and employment do not materialise sufficiently.     

Financial well-being in family-based foster care: Exploring variation in income supports for kin and non-kin caregivers in California

Kinship foster parents have the same responsibilities as nonrelative foster parents and are held to the same standards of rehabilitative care. Nonetheless, their rights to financial supports and their access to other services vary across states depending on the federal eligibility of the child, and/or the licensing criteria caregivers may or may not meet. We know little about the financial supports, well-being, or services of kinship caregivers receiving differential payment schemes and whether or not these financial supports and services make any difference. More fundamentally, in states that operate two- or more -tiered funding schemes for kinship foster parents, we currently cannot even estimate what proportion of kin caregivers receive more, less, or nothing from the government, even though all are entitled to something. Kin and non-kin caregivers in two California counties responded to a written survey focused on the financial wellbeing and income supports available to families. Sources of support were associated with the availability and utilization of other child welfare services for caregivers and for children.     

Estimating minimum adequate foster care costs for children in the United States

Although foster care homes play a crucial role in providing stable placements to children who enter the child welfare system due to maltreatment, there is currently no federal minimum rate nor standard methodology to establish adequate rates to support foster parents to meet these children's needs. Therefore, it is important to establish a model to estimate the real costs associated with caring for children to serve as a foundation for states to set adequate reimbursement rates. The objectives of this study are to: use the methodology of a 2007 study to establish foster care minimum adequate rates for children (MARC) based on the child's age and geographical location in every state; update the MARC with cost of living adjustments to 2016; examine changes in gaps between the MARC and the current foster care rates; and identify states that have made increases to their reimbursement rates, relative to the MARC over time. Results found that all but four states provide lower foster care reimbursement rates than the adequate costs in 2016. This study recommends that, at the federal level, enhanced precision in operational definitions of care categories could increase consistency in the way that states reimburse foster families. Additionally, findings provide policy suggestions to establish a national methodology standard and increase foster care rates to the level that will meet children's needs. This study will enhance the scant body of literature found on establishing an economic model to estimate foster care costs.     

Foster home licensing and risk of reentry to out-of-home care following family reunification

Family reunification without subsequent reentry is the primary permanency goal for children placed in foster care. While a number of placement-level factors have been examined for their effect on subsequent reentry to care, no study to date has considered foster care licensing. The current study uses statewide administrative data to construct a cohort of foster care youth who entered care between 2009 and 2012 and were reunified by the start of 2013 (N = 7752) to investigate the association between types of foster care and the probability of reentry to foster care up to two years following reunification. We focus specifically on the licensing status of foster homes, and employ propensity score analysis to address selection bias in placement type. A propensity-weighted cox proportional hazard model revealed that youth placed in licensed relative care (LRC) homes and licensed non-relative care (LNC) homes were more likely to reenter foster care than those youth placed in unlicensed relative care (URC) homes during their first spell of foster care.     

Planned and unplanned terminations of foster care placements in the Netherlands: Relationships with characteristics of foster children and foster placements

This study examined the role of placement and child characteristics in the unplanned termination of foster placements. Data were used from 169 foster children aged 0 to 20. Results showed that 35% of all foster placement terminations were unplanned. Outcomes of logistic regression analyses demonstrated that behavior problems, parenting stress and a non-Dutch ethnic background of the foster child increased the likelihood of a placement termination. Furthermore, risk accumulation contributed to unplanned terminations. The results indicate that supporting foster parents in managing problem behavior of the foster child and reducing parenting stress may be a key to an effective prevention of disrupted foster care placements.     

政府购买居家养老服务的探索与发展——以济南市历下区为例

基于济南市历下区购买居家养老服务的实践,探讨了社区居家养老服务的时代背景,重点分析了历下区政府购买居家养老服务的运作模式,研究结果表明,在我国养老压力日益严峻的情况下,要完善政府购买居家养老服务模式,必须积极推进社区居家养老服务产业的发展;加大政策扶持力度,加强资金引导;培育社会组织,提高养老服务品质;实现政府购买居家养老服务的标准化运作,只有这样才能缓解养老压力,提高老年人生活质量,推动养老服务事业的发展。     

Youth with disabilities in the United States Child Welfare System

Existing literature suggests that youth with disabilities are known to be at increased risk of maltreatment in the form of abuse and/or neglect. Little is known, however, about the experiences of youth with disabilities who are living in foster care or who are supervised by child protection authorities. This study establishes a baseline estimate of the prevalence of youth with disabilities living in foster care, documents reasons for child protection system involvement, identifies placement types while youth are in care and explores case outcomes. This cross-sectional, exploratory study draws on data from the 2012 Adoption and Foster Care Reporting System (AFCARS) for foster youth in 50 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. A sample of youth with disabilities (N = 36.492) and a comparison group without disabilities (N = 601.539) were identified. Findings about demographics, reasons for child removal, foster care placements, permanency planning goals and case outcomes are presented. Findings have implications for the prevention the removal of youth from caregivers, the need for family supports to prevent foster care involvement, the promotion of community inclusion of foster youth while in foster care and the need for inter-system collaboration at the transitional age stage.     

Reparenting in the therapeutic relationship with a birth parent: A case

This paper discusses work with a parent in a foster care situation. A case example is used to demonstrate the value of a model of a parentchild relationship for therapeutic work with seemingly unmotivated clients such as parents whose child is in foster care.