Informant accuracy in social network data IV: a comparison of clique-level structure in behavioral and cognitive network data

This paper examines whether clique-structure in cognitive data (i.e. recall of who one talks to) may be used as a proxy for clique-structure in behavioral data (i.e. who one actually talks to). The answer to this question is crucial to much of sociometric and social net-theoretic studies of social structure.We analysed the clique structures of the communication patterns of four naturally occurring groups of sizes 34 to 58, whose actual communications could easily be monitored, together with the groups' perceptions of their communications. The groups used were: radio hams, a college fraternity, a group of office workers, and an academic department. The analysis used clique-finding, block-modelling, and factor-analytic techniques, all employed in such a way as to maximize the accuracy of the cognitive data.After defining a way to compare clique structures between behavioral and cognitive data, we found that there was no useful relationship between the two, and furthermore there was no significant difference in performance between any of the structure-finding algorithms.We conclude that cognitive data may not be used for drawing any conclusions about behavioral social structure.     

Informant accuracy in social network data III: A comparison of triadic structure in behavioral and cognitive data

This paper provides a comparison of the triadic-level structure inherent in behavioral and cognitive social network data taken on the same group, using a variety of groups whose communication could easily be monitored.It is found that many types of structure occur significantly more or less than chance in both behavioral and cognitive data, and providing that these are treated in similar ways, there is good agreement between the two structures. However, there are several ways to treat behavioral data, and these produce at least two essentially different structures.If cognitive and behavioral triads are compared, triad by triad, then there is virtually no agreement between them (even though they may both display the same structure on an overall triad census).Finally, as a demonstration of the dangers of relying solely on cognitive data, an unlikely null hypothesis is proposed. This asserts — for demonstration purposes — that, under many circumstances, behavioral structure never alters. Change in structure over time apparently occurs because of informant error in the reporting of the cognitive data. A pseudo-transition matrix, giving the probability that a triad is reported as one type when data are first taken, and a different type at a later date, is calculated. This compares reasonably with a genuine transition matrix evaluated for longitudinal cognitive data. It is believed that no data currently exist which can disprove this hypothesis, unlikely though it is. Much more accurate data are therefore necessary if any reliable theory of social structure is to be produced.     

Beyond transaction markets,toward relationship marketing in the human firm: A socio-economic model

Relationship marketing involving a long-term, symbiotic, learning partnership between buyer and seller is an important new development that is dramatically different from transaction oriented marketing in which the aim of the seller is simply to close a specific sale. The socio-economic model developed in this paper explains the firm's choice of marketing orientation, i.e., where the firm will locate on the spectrum from transaction orientation to relationship marketing orientation. This choice is determined by 1) the economic incentives from markets it participates in, 2) the customer's orientation, 3) the internal organizational capabilities of the seller, 4) the “macro” societal influence, 5) the “micro” social influences of extra firm institutions and infrastructures, 6) special product related factors, and 7) the technological opportunities available to the seller. There is good reason to believe that businesses fail to invest sufficiently in their buyer-seller relationships. Therefore, society would gain if governments were to foster the development of relationship marketing.     

Strategy and structure in the human firm: Beyond hierarchy,toward flexibility and integration

In response to global competition and a rapidly changing business environment, corporate strategies and structures are becoming more flexible and integrated. This article develops a model of the flexible, integrated firm, a model that focuses on corporate strategy and organizational structure. The flexible-integrated (FI) firm's mode of operation represents tendencies present in high performance, global companies, particularly as these companies have been understood by leading managerial thinkers. The FI-Firm's operations are contrasted with the hierarchical (H) firm. The H-Firm incorporates strategy and structure in a very different way, which reflects the dominant operating mode of the large Western corporation during much of the second half of the twentieth century. Given the nature of today's competition, there are many reasons for believing that the FI-Firm is not only more flexible but also more efficient than the H-Firm.     

State expenditures on home and community based services and use of formal and informal personal assistance: a multilevel analysis

Despite wide state variation in commitment to home and community-based services (HCBS) for functionally impaired older persons, little is known about how such variation affects older adults' strategies to compensate for their functional limitations. This study examines the association of state HCBS expenditures with use of formal and informal personal assistance among non-institutionalized older Americans aged 70 and older with functional limitations. We conducted multilevel multinomial logistic regression analysis using data from the first wave of the Assets and Health Dynamics among the Oldest Old Survey, combined with data on state HCBS expenditures. Controlling for individuals' demographic, socioeconomic, and care needs factors, persons residing in states with higher HCBS expenditures were more likely to use formal personal assistance, but not less likely to use informal assistance. Our study suggests state variation in HCBS expenditures leads to inequitable access to formal personal assistance, especially among those with high functional limitations.     

Kinship and network: A cognitive model of interaction

This research utilizes aspects of informants' cognition of their kinship relations to generate a hypothetical model of mobilizations of kinsmen for the accomplishment of tasks. Informants produced rankings of the relative strengths of expected norm fulfillment with respect to various kinsmen. These rankings were then scaled. The correlations among the resulting scales were factor analyzed to reveal clusters of kinsmen. These clusters reflect general levels of normative expectation of the kinsmen and, thus, their relative likelihood of recruitment in mobilizations.     

Using modern methods for missing data analysis with the social relations model: A bridge to social network analysis

Social network analysis identifies social ties, and perceptual measures identify peer norms. The social relations model (SRM) can decompose interval-level perceptual measures among all dyads in a network into multiple person- and dyad-level components. This study demonstrates how to accommodate missing round-robin data using Bayesian data augmentation, including how to incorporate partially observed covariates as auxiliary correlates or as substantive predictors. We discuss how data augmentation opens the possibility to fit SRM to network ties (potentially without boundaries) rather than round-robin data. An illustrative application explores the relationship between sorority members’ self-reported body comparisons and perceptions of friends’ body talk.     

Networks of action and events over time. A multilevel discrete-time event history model for longitudinal network data

Longitudinal network data recording the moment at which ties appear, change, or disappear are increasingly available. Event history models can be used to analyze the dynamics of time-stamped network data. This paper adapts the discrete-time event history model to social network data. A discrete-time event history model can easily incorporate a multilevel design and time-varying covariates. A multilevel design is needed to account for dependencies among ties and vertices, which should not be ignored in a small longitudinal network. Time-varying covariates are required to analyze network effects, that is, the impact of previous ties. In addition, a discrete-time event history model handles constraints on who can act or who can be acted upon in a straightforward way. The model can be estimated with multilevel logistic regression analysis, which is illustrated by an application to book reviews, so network evolution can be analyzed with a fairly standard statistical tool.     

The interplay between formal project memberships and informal advice seeking in knowledge-intensive firms: A multilevel network approach

In this study we investigate the interplay between knowledge workers’ formal project team memberships and their informal interactions from a multilevel network perspective. Conceptualizing knowledge workers’ affiliation with project teams as a membership network and their interactions as an advice network, we discuss how shared project team memberships as well as multiple memberships influence patterns of informal exchange in knowledge-intensive organizations. To empirically determine the impact of formal organization on informal exchange we apply exponential random graph models for multilevel networks to relational data collected on 434 R&D employees working on 218 project teams in a high-tech firm in Germany. Our results show that employees sharing project memberships create advice ties to each other but do not exchange advice reciprocally. In addition, we find a negative relationship between having a high number of project memberships and informally seeking or providing advice.     

Organization theory in administrative law: A proposal for a design science

A design science for administrative law is proposed. Organization-controlling law should be designed in terms of sociological competence. Architecture and engineering offer a model based on (1) good fit, (2) multi-disciplinary perspectives, (3) analysis and feedback of failures, and (4) a paradigm. The science would begin with characteristics of regulated organizations and categories of law-organization relationships and lead to better design of compliance machineries. However, methodological strictures within mainstream sociology reduce the prospects for this science. Lawrence B. Radine received his Ph.D. in sociology from Washington University in St. Louis in 1973. He is the author ofThe Taming of the Troops (1977) and is associate professor of sociology and director of the Master’s of Public Administration Program at the University of Michigan-Dearborn.     

Social creativity as a function of agent cognition and network properties: A computer model

Inventions – concepts, devices, procedures – are often created by networks of interacting agents in which the agents can be individuals (as in a scientific discipline) or they can themselves be collectives (as in firms interacting in a market). Different collectives create and invent at different rates. It is plausible that the rate of invention is jointly determined by properties of the agents (e.g., their cognitive capacity) and by properties of the network of interactions (e.g., the density of the communication links), but little is known about such two-level interactions. We present an agent-based model of social creativity in which the individual agent captures key features of the human cognitive architecture derived from cognitive psychology, and the interactions are modeled by agents exchanging partial results of their symbolic processing of task information. We investigated the effect of agent and network properties on rates of invention and diffusion in the network via systematic parameter variations. Simulation runs show, among other results, that (a) the simulation exhibits network effects, i.e., the model captures the beneficial effect of collaboration; (b) the density of connections produces diminishing returns in term of the benefits on the invention rate; and (c) limits on the cognitive capacity of the individual agents have the counterintuitive consequence of focusing their efforts. Limitations and relations to other computer simulation models of creative collectives are discussed.     

The influence of friends on adolescents’ behavior problems at school: The role of ego,alter and dyadic characteristics

This paper deals with the influence of friends in class on adolescents’ problematic school behavior (i.e. inattention in class and not doing homework). We examine whether this influence is moderated by ego (i.e. the adolescent's indegree), alter (i.e. friends’ indegree) and dyadic characteristics (i.e. friendship reciprocity). Influence processes are analyzed with a stochastic actor-based model (SIENA), while controlling for friendship selection. Using a 4-wave panel dataset, we find that friends influence adolescents’ problematic school behavior. Adolescents with a higher indegree are less likely to be influenced. The influence of friends is not significantly moderated by friends’ indegree and friendship reciprocity.     

Seeing things clearly: social structure,personality, and accuracy in social network perception

People differ in their ability to perceive accurately the informal patterns of interpersonal relationships in their social groups, i.e., the group's network structure. Existing research leaves us largely unable to explain the variation in accuracy in social network perception. This paper argues that the study of accuracy in social network perception should consider the effect of both situational factors and individual differences. To explore this claim, three research centers in an Italian university were studied. Perceptions of the friendship and the work-related advice networks in the organization were compared to the actual network. The results indicate that both an observer's position in the formal and informal social structure of the organization, and his or her personality traits contribute to determining accuracy in social network perception.     

Conflict measurements: analysis of simultaneous inclusion in roles,values, independence,attitudes, and dyadic adjustment

A survey of 641 public relations practitioners and journalists showed that the perceived conflict of two professions is their strategic choice. The perceived conflict of two professions can be best illuminated by a bi-level of perceptual differences among agreement, congruency and accuracy between and within subjects of public relations practitioners and journalists in their professional orientation. While the two professions demonstrated their perceptual discrepancies in terms of roles, values, independence, dyadic adjustment and attitudes in conflict, both further revealed a tendency to escalate or minimize the conflict to strategically manage the degree of conflict. This study ultimately proposes a salient indicator to gauge a conflict and further suggest a stratagem for the conflict management in public relations.