Eating disorders and body image of undergraduate men

Eating disorders and body dissatisfaction among undergraduate men are less documented and researched than are eating disorders and body dissatisfaction among undergraduate women. OBJECTIVE AND PARTICIPANTS: In this study, the authors examined these issues in undergraduate men to identify similarities and differences between this population and undergraduate women. METHODS: In a random sample of undergraduates, the authors categorized respondents by gender and by presence or absence of an eating disorder. The authors compared undergraduate men with an eating disorder with (1) undergraduate women with an eating disorder and (2) undergraduate men without an eating disorder. RESULTS: The patterns of responses suggest that undergraduate men with an eating disorder are preoccupied with body shape and tone but not necessarily with losing weight. CONCLUSIONS: The authors discuss implications for future prevention as well as clinical and research efforts based on male symptoms within the diagnostic category of bulimia nervosa and eating disorder, not otherwise specified.     

Eating Disorders and Body Image of Undergraduate Men

Eating disorders and body dissatisfaction among undergraduate men are less documented and researched than are eating disorders and body dissatisfaction among undergraduate women. Objective and Participants: In this study, the authors examined these issues in undergraduate men to identify similarities and differences between this population and undergraduate women. Methods: In a random sample of undergraduates, the authors categorized respondents by gender and by presence or absence of an eating disorder. The authors compared undergraduate men with an eating disorder with (1) undergraduate women with an eating disorder and (2) undergraduate men without an eating disorder. Results: The patterns of responses suggest that undergraduate men with an eating disorder are preoccupied with body shape and tone but not necessarily with losing weight. Conclusions: The authors discuss implications for future prevention as well as clinical and research efforts based on male symptoms within the diagnostic category of bulimia nervosa and eating disorder, not otherwise specified.     

Gender differences in antifat attitudes

Abstract

Differences between women and men in the expression of prejudice toward obese people coexist with widespread antifat attitudes. It has been argued that these differences stem from women's tendency to internalize the social norm of slimness and to develop eating concerns, while men tend to resort to externalization and to showing antifat attitudes. Data obtained from 597 students (264 male and 333 female) revealed that men showed more prejudice against obese people, and that women had high scores in eating problems questionnaires. Finally, it is discussed why men and women adopt different strategies to deal with the social norm of thinness.     

Are there differences in gender,race, and age regarding body dissatisfaction?

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine any differences that may exist among demographic variables such as gender, age, and race in regard to internalization of society and media messages leading to body dissatisfaction that may lead to disordered eating behaviors such as preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint. A total of 324 participants completed the demographic questionnaire, the Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire, the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire for women, the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-Revised-Male-Version for men, and Rotter’s Internal-External (I-E) Locus of Control Scale. The results of this study found, as predicted, that Caucasians reported higher internalization, higher body dissatisfaction, and higher preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint than African Americans. This study showed no differences regarding men’s and women’s internalization or body dissatisfaction but did reveal that women reported higher preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint than men. Regarding age, this study found that age did not predict internalization, body dissatisfaction, or preoccupation with weight, dieting, and eating restraint.     

Frail men's perspectives on food and eating

Food shopping, preparation, and serving traditionally tend to be the domain of women. This article, however, focuses on the rarely examined world of frail old men who live in the community and on the meanings and themes that underlie their attitudes and behaviors in relation to food and eating. Based on the analyses of face-to-face qualitative interviews with 15 men, 76–95 years old, four inter-related themes emerged: (1) eating to live and wish to survive, (2) centrality of concern about the physical body, (3) the pervasive need for maintenance of masculinity, and (4) importance of sociality to the eating experience. Findings demonstrate how themes of masculinity in these men affect their narratives and perceptions about food and eating.     

Eating Disorders and Body Image Concerns Among Male Athletes

Many men are as obsessed as women with counting calories. They are preoccupied with their weight, diet frequently, exercise excessively, and binge and purge. Some subgroups of men have eating disorder rates higher than those of the general male population. One subgroup consists of men who participate in competitive athletics. Although there is increasing awareness of eating disorders in men, male athletes may continue to elude identification and be difficult to treat. Their subculture promotes the use of unhealthy measures, such as restrictive eating, binging and purging, and consuming steroids and other performance enhancing drugs. Professionals involved with the male athlete may not recognize these behaviors as problematic. In fact, they may not even look for the behaviors when dealing with men. Consequently, men’s eating disorders are missed and misdiagnosed. Male athletes face a combination of cultural, political, and financial pressures that is unique and represents an added risk factor that could have long-term irreversible effects. It is imperative that mental health professionals be aware of the unique-to-men risk factors associated with disordered eating. This article illustrates how eating disorders as well as body image dissatisfaction manifest themselves in male athletes, how difficult it can be to engage them in psychotherapy, and how clinicians can address these concerns.     

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptomatology,binge eating disorder symptomatology,and body mass index among college students

Abstract

Objective: To explore the relationship between symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), symptoms of binge eating disorder, and body mass index (BMI) among students at a southern university. Participants: Two hundred seventy-seven college students. Methods: Between January 31, 2013 and March 27, 2013, participants completed the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) Screener and the Binge Eating Scale (BES) in addition to permitting researchers to measure their height and weight. Results: Higher ASRS scores, higher BMIs, and lower BES scores were observed among men. Among both men and women, BES scores were positively correlated with BMI and ASRS scores; however, the correlation between ASRS and BMI was not significant. Conclusion: Binge eating disorder symptomatology was associated with increased ADHD symptomatology and a higher BMI among both men and women. Among students presenting with obesity or ADHD, screening for binge eating may assist with the identification of problematic eating behaviors.     

Revisiting the “Myth” of Feminine Masochism

Masochism, an enigmatic concept and clinical entity, has long posed one of the most difficult therapeutic challenges. Clinical observation supports the view that both men and women can exhibit masochistic traits. However, by virtue of their gender specific developmental paths, men and women may differ in their respective masochistic manifestations. Female patients often report a tendency to inhibit aggression which can lead to its somatic expression. Women also tend to be more prone to certain types of self-defeating behaviors and affective states, such as eating disorders, depression, and victimization. Factors contributing to the development of masochism in women include the influence of pre-oedipal and oedipal relations with the parents, narcissistic needs, and the internalization of societal attitudes toward women.     

Living Together and Eating Together: Changes in Food Choice and Eating Habits during the Transition from Single to Married/Cohabiting

In 1995 we recruited twenty-two heterosexual couples from Edinburgh and Glasgow to examine the changes which took place in their eating habits and food related activities when they began to live together. Semi-structured interviews were carried out three months before and after moving-in dates and on each occasion both men and women were interviewed separately. Both felt that eating together had a symbolic importance when they set up home together and most couples made efforts to eat a main meal together most evenings, while shopping and eating patterns tended to become more regular and formalised than they were at the pre-marriage/cohabitation stage. In a small majority of cases the women were mainly responsible for buying and preparing food. A significant difference between these women and those of other, earlier studies is that they tended to be less deferential to their husbands' food choices. However, associations between women, food and nurturing were evident in the efforts women made to improve their husbands' diets. Where food purchase and preparation were shared, so was choice of food. The goal of enjoying food together was achieved by learning, influence and compromise but no significant gendering of power in food choice was identified.     

Gender Socialization,Countertransference and the Treatment of Men with Eating Disorders

Knowledge about the treatment of eating disorders is largely based on the experience of women with these disorders. The motivations, beliefs, vulnerabilities and developmental factors that cause and perpetuate eating disorders in men are often gendered. Engaging men in therapy and helping them build and sustain motivation requires therapeutic sensitivity to the impact of these gendered factors. Therapists’ sensitivity to these factors inevitably activates personal experiences with gender and provides an important source of information about patients’ experiences. This article focuses on how gender socialization and internalized views of masculinity affect client, therapist and the co-created therapeutic relationship. Male and female therapists can use awareness of gender influences to improve their ability to detect and communicate their gendered countertransference reactions. The article concludes with a discussion of how gendered assumptions and emotional reactions can affect treatment team interactions and treatment program protocols.     

The connection between working hours and body mass index in the U.S.: a time use analysis

Over recent decades, Americans have transitioned from working in active jobs to working in sedentary jobs, and there have been dramatic increases in hours worked for certain demographic groups. While a body of research documents that time spent working is associated with increased body mass index (BMI), this paper explores possible mechanisms for that relationship using time use data. This paper finds that, for workers in non-strenuous jobs, 10 additional hours spent working are associated with an increase in BMI of 0.424 for women and 0.197 for men, representing an increase of 2.5 and 1.4 pounds, respectively. The paper does not find a relationship between working time and BMI for workers in strenuous jobs. For workers in non-strenuous jobs, the effect of time spent working on BMI becomes smaller after accounting for time spent sleeping for both men and women and time spent in exercise and food preparation for women only; the effect becomes larger after accounting for screen time for both men and women and time spent in secondary eating and commuting for women only. Screen time is the single time use channel associated with the largest differences in the estimated effect of time spent working on BMI for both women and men employed in non-strenuous jobs. After controlling for all time use channels, the effect of hours worked on BMI decreases for women, but increases for men. These findings suggest plausible mechanisms for the association between time spent working and obesity.     

Service Provision for Men with Eating Issues in Australia: An Analysis of Organisations', Practitioners', and Men's Experiences

Abstract

Research was undertaken to explore issues surrounding service provision for men with eating issues in Australia. Qualitative and quantitative data were gathered from key stakeholders—organisations that provide treatment (n=15), practitioners that have worked with men with eating issues (n=10), and individual men with eating issues (n=5). Four key areas were explored: rates of access to services, the expression and development of eating issues in men, factors inhibiting or facilitating the recovery process, and recommendations to improve service provision. Results highlighted the need for increased awareness about men's eating issues within society generally, but for health professionals specifically, the need for better recognition of the expression of eating issues in men, and the expansion of existing services to be more “male friendly”. It is anticipated that service providers will benefit from these findings by identifying ways to reduce barriers and encourage help-seeking behaviour in men. Future research should seek to replicate and expand these findings using a larger sample size.     

Aging male symptomatology and eating behavior

Objective: The literature on eating disorders in older males is still very limited. We assessed the relationship between aging male symptomatology and eating behavior in middle-aged and older men.

Method: We distributed anonymous questionnaires to men aged 40–75?years living in or near Innsbruck, Austria, covering demographic items, current eating disorder symptoms (as defined by DSM-5), and associated measures of eating pathology, body image, and sports activity (including exercise addiction). We also administered the Aging Males’ Symptoms scale (AMS), and classified respondents as “high-AMS” (AMS score ≥37; N?=?82) or “low-AMS” (AMS score <37; N?=?386).

Results: High-AMS men reported a significantly higher mean current BMI, a greater prevalence of eating disorder symptoms, higher scores on the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire, greater risk of exercise addiction, and more negative body image than low-AMS men.

Discussion: We found a marked association between aging-male symptomatology and eating-disorder symptomatology in aging men. Our findings suggest that clinicians should carefully inquire about eating disorder symptoms in men aged 40 and above reporting aging-male symptomatology. Importantly, several men in the study reported “purging” via excessive exercise (as opposed to the more common methods of vomiting or use of laxatives or diuretics), and therefore this should be a subject of inquiry in clinical evaluations. To pursue these findings, subsequent studies of eating disorders in older men should consider assessing endocrinological measures, particularly testosterone levels, and should use longitudinal designs.     

The health of university athletes: attitudes, behaviors, and stressors

This study examined several aspects of the health of university athletes. Five areas of concern were targeted for investigation: general health background, use of drugs and alcohol, weight and eating behaviors, stress, and use of helping resources. The authors developed a questionnaire and used it to survey 27 varsity athletic teams at a major private university. The incidence of injuries was high; one third of the 247 student athletes surveyed reported sport-related injuries. Alcohol was much more frequently used than other drugs, and use tended to decrease during the competitive season. Significant differences between men and women athletes were found in off-season alcohol and marijuana use. Anabolic steroid abuse did not appear to be a major problem for this athlete population. Issues of diet, weight, and body image were found to be significantly different for women than for men. Although the incidence of bulimia and anorexia was low for both female and male athletes, it was clear that female athletes brought to their sport heightened concern for body image. The authors discuss the psychological and interpersonal implications that these findings have for the adjustment of female athletes. Injury and academics were perceived as the most stressful factors for both men and women, whereas weight and diet issues were a major stress factor for one third of the women. Given these data, specific recommendations are made for health professionals who work with college athletes.     

An Exploratory Study of Clinical Measures Associated with Subsyndromal Pathological Gambling in Patients with Binge Eating Disorder

Both binge eating disorder (BED) and pathological gambling (PG) are characterized by impairments in impulse control. Subsyndromal levels of PG have been associated with measures of adverse health. The nature and significance of PG features in individuals with BED is unknown. Ninety-four patients with BED (28 men and 66 women) were classified by gambling group based on inclusionary criteria for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-IV (DSM-IV) PG and compared on a range of behavioral, psychological and eating disorder (ED) psychopathology variables. One individual (1.1% of the sample) met criteria for PG, although 18.7% of patients with BED displayed one or more DSM-IV criteria for PG, hereafter referred to as problem gambling features. Men were more likely than women to have problem gambling features. BED patients with problem gambling features were distinguished by lower self-esteem and greater substance problem use. After controlling for gender, findings of reduced self-esteem and increased substance problem use among patients with problem gambling features remained significant. In patients with BED, problem gambling features are associated with a number of heightened clinical problems.     

Sex on the brain?: an examination of frequency of sexual cognitions as a function of gender, erotophilia, and social desirability

It is commonly believed that men think about sex much more often than do women, but the empirical evidence in this area is fairly weak. By means of a golf tally counter, 283 college students kept track of their thoughts pertaining to food, sleep, or sex for one week. Males reported significantly more need-based cognitions overall, but there was no significant interaction between sex of participant and type of cognition recorded. Therefore, although these young men did think more about sex than did young women, they also thought more about food and sleep. In contrast, a retrospective estimated frequency of need-based cognitions obtained at the start of the study revealed a sex difference in sexual cognitions, but not thoughts about eating or sleeping. Erotophilia and sexual desirability responding were significant predictors of frequency of sexual cognitions for women, but not for men. Overall, erotophilia was a better predictor of sexual cognition than was sex of participant. Taken as a whole, the results suggest that, although there may be a sex difference in sexual cognitions, it is smaller than is generally thought, and the reporting is likely influenced by sex role expectations.     

Narrative Therapy,Eating Disorders and Groups: Enhancing Outcomes in Rural NSW

Abstract

The present paper reports on a study conducted with seven women who identified themselves as experiencing depression as well as an eating disorder and who live in a rural region of northern New South Wales. Self-referred, the women participated in a weekly group for 10 weeks, with a mixture of topics, conducted within a narrative therapy framework. A comparison of pre- and post-group tests demonstrated a reduction in depression scores and eating disorder risk. All women reported a change in daily practices, together with less self-criticism. These findings were supported by a post-group evaluation survey that revealed that externalisation of, and disengagement from, the eating disorder strongly assisted the women to make changes in their daily practices. Although preliminary and short term, the outcomes of the present study indicate that group work conducted within a narrative therapy framework may result in positive changes for women entangled with depression and an eating disorder.     

Eating and exercise disorders in young college men

The authors used the computerized Eating and Exercise Examination to investigate eating, weight, shape, and exercise behaviors in a convenience sample of 93 male college students. One fifth of the men worried about their weight and shape, followed rules about eating, and limited their food intake. Between 9% and 12% were unhappy with their body shape, felt fat, and seriously wanted to lose weight. Exercise was important for the self-esteem of 48% of the students. Thirty-four percent were distressed when they could not exercise as much as they wanted, 27% followed rules about exercising, and 14% worried about the amount of exercise they were doing. The respondents met clinical diagnoses for objective binge eating (3%), self-induced vomiting (3%), bulimia nervosa (2%), and exercise disorders (8%). Although 9% reported disordered eating, none had sought treatment. Health professionals should be aware that eating and exercise disorders may be present in college men and that screening may help in the early identification of these problems.     

An exploration of the drive for muscularity in adolescent boys and girls

Much of the existing research on disordered eating has centered on the drive for thinness, which is most commonly observed in girls and women. The male standard of bodily attractiveness, however, is bigger, bulkier, and more muscular. Are boys and men motivated to be big and muscular in the same way that girls and women are motivated to be thin? The authors constructed a 15-item survey and administered it to 197 adolescents. The findings showed that the drive for muscularity measure displayed good reliability; that individuals high in the drive were more likely to be boys who were trying to gain both weight and muscle mass; that the drive was related to poor self-esteem and higher levels of depression among boys, but not among girls; and that the drive for muscularity was relatively unrelated to the drive for thinness.     

Two distinct mediated pathways to disordered eating in response to weight stigmatization and their application to prevention programs

ABSTRACT

Objective: Disordered eating behaviors among undergraduate women are common and, thus, are an important public health concern. Weight stigmatization, stress, and social withdrawal are often associated with disordered eating behaviors; however, it is unclear whether stress and social withdrawal act as mediators between weight stigmatization and disordered eating. By testing specific pathways to disordered eating, theory-driven prevention programs can be implemented. Methods: Self-reported surveys were administered to 217 undergraduate women during the Fall 2014 semester. Results: There were 2 distinct mediational pathways in response to weight stigmatization. Stress partially mediated the path between weight stigmatization and emotional eating (38%), whereas social withdrawal partially mediated the path between weight stigmatization and dietary restraint (44%). Conclusions: Stress and social withdrawal mediate the relationship between weight stigmatization and disordered eating. The results of this study identified potentially critical risk factors that, if addressed, may improve outcomes of campus-based disordered eating programs for women.