An empirical analysis of alleged misunderstandings of coefficient alpha

Cronbach’s alpha is the most frequently used measure to investigate the reliability of measurement instruments. Despite its frequent use, many warn for misinterpretations of alpha. These claims about regular misunderstandings, however, are not based on empirical data. To understand how common such beliefs are, we conducted a survey study to test researchers’ knowledge of and beliefs about alpha. For this survey, we selected authors from recent papers, in which alpha was used. The results provide empirical evidence for the claims that researchers have difficulty interpreting alpha in a proper way. At the same time, we expounded the claims, by showing that whereas some beliefs are fairly typical, others are not so often seen. This non-technical paper, aimed at both statisticians and substantive researchers, is concluded by providing a few suggestions that could be helpful to get us out of the current stalemate regarding the usability of alpha and its alternatives.     

Between trust and distrust in research with participants in conflict context

Trust is often treated as a binary where research participants either trust researchers or not, whereas in reality trust is multi-layered. Drawing on 10 months of fieldwork working with internally displaced persons and their non-displaced neighbours in rural Colombia, this article provides a more nuanced discussion of trust in research. It identifies ways in which participants are vulnerable, provides fieldwork strategies to address these vulnerabilities, and questions the assumption that extended time spent in the field necessarily results in greater trust. It argues that such beliefs underestimate the complexity of conflict and post-conflict research contexts where political and social relations are often unstable. Demonstrating that trust may be compartmentalised, and that trust and distrust can coexist, it proposes that the question researchers should ask themselves is not whether participants trust us or not but rather in what capacity and to what degree they (dis)trust us and what influences their level of trust.     

African-American students’ perceptions of public relations education and practice: Implications for minority recruitment

In-depth interviews were conducted with African-American public relations students to explore their perceptions of public relations and the role race may play in their career success. The motivations for pursuing public relations and perceptions of the field are not different than those of other groups of students found in previous studies. However, the findings provide insights that are helpful in recruiting African-American students, and also in retaining them in the major. Central themes that emerged from the data are that it is important to have African-American role models, and that students’ view race as a fact of life that can be both a barrier and an asset.     

“From Her Side of the Gossamer Wall(s)”: Reflexivity and Relational Knowing

Drawing on a provocative metaphor from an award-winning novel, this article argues that reflexivity can be conceived as three gossamer walls through which researchers construct knowledge from within three sets of relationships, including relations with: oneself (and the ghosts that haunt us); with research participants; and with one’s readers, audiences, and epistemological communities. On the other side of a first gossamer wall are relations with our many selves as well as with ‘ghosts,’ deeply buried across time and space, that may come back to haunt us when we are physically and emotionally invested in our research. Behind a second gossamer wall are the multi-layered relations between researchers and research respondents, relationships that can involve oral, audible, physical, emotional, textual, embodied, as well as shifting theoretical and epistemological dimensions. Finally, a third gossamer wall lies between ourselves and our readers and audiences as well as the epistemological or epistemic communities wherein our work is located, read, reviewed, and received. Rooted in an ethnography of Canadian primary caregiving fathers, the article contributes to current discussions of reflexivity in qualitative research practice by expanding dominant understandings of reflexivity as a self-centered exercise towards a consideration of other critical relationships that are part of how we come to know and write about others. The metaphor of gossamer walls, combining the sheerness of gossamer and the solidity of walls, provides for creative ways of conceptualizing reflexivity in temporal and spatial terms as well as to consider the constantly shifting degrees of transparency and obscurity, connection and separation that recur in the multiple relations that constitute reflexive research and knowing.     

"I KNOW THIS ISN'T PC, BUT . . .": Religious Exclusivism among U.S. Adolescents

Despite the growing pluralism of American society, the proportion of Americans who maintain exclusivist religious beliefs is sizable. This study focuses on adolescence—a period when independent religious lives are forming—examining the social, familial, and denominational correlates of exclusivist beliefs and the ways in which exclusivist adolescents reconcile their beliefs with the cultural mores of a pluralistic society. Using new data from the National Study of Youth and Religion, this study involves the analysis of both survey data and in-depth interviews. Logistic regression results show that Mormons and evangelicals are more likely than mainline Protestants to hold exclusivist beliefs. High levels of parent religiosity and dense religious peer networks also strongly predict exclusivism. Yet the interview data show that exclusivists have not resisted pluralism but have internalized messages of religious diversity. They modify their beliefs in response to pluralism and articulate them carefully so as not to be perceived as intolerant.     

Public perceptions of public relations

Public relations has been portrayed in the media in a consistently negative manner over several decades, providing images that may become part of public perceptions. Perceptions about public relations affect the perceived credibility of the profession and influence whether people see public relations as valuable to society. Second-level agenda setting and cultivation theories purport that mass media contribute to beliefs about social reality by creating a cumulative, general consciousness upon which assumptions and judgments are based, suggesting that public perceptions about public relations would match media portrayal. Results of a telephone survey found public relations is perceived more positively than media portrayal would suggest. Respondents viewed public relations as an important activity that benefits society by providing information and disagree that it is damage control, an attempt to hide or disguise something, or a non-substantive activity. However, public relations is associated with publicity, media relations, and the attempt of an organization to advance its own agenda.     

Acceptance of democracy and public relations: Attitudes in a transitional country

The study explores the relationship between acceptance of democracy and opinions about public communication used by the private sector in television newscasts in Croatia, a country transitioning to democracy. A survey administered to students at a large University in Zagreb found inconsistent responses to the items that measured acceptance of democracy, indicating that young Croatians in the study may still be in a political “gray zone” and may not have a full understanding of the precepts of democracy. However, there was a positive correlation between opinions about public relations media practices and acceptance of democracy. The study suggests that it is not enough to use a theoretical framework of global public relations that characterizes a country as a democracy or not, but rather to recognize that democratization is a process. Many people in transitional societies may be closer on the continuum to traditional communist points of view than to newer democratic views; such understanding can help provide a theoretical understanding of transitional public relations.     

Applicability of the Generic Principles of Excellent Public Relations in a Different Cultural Context: The Case Study of Singapore

This study used 4 generic principles of public relations based on the Excellence Theory to analyze the extent to which strategic public relations management was practiced in Singapore and whether public relations is part of senior management in 4 types of organizations: public relations consulting firms, corporations, government agencies, and nonprofit organizations. Data were collected from 127 public relations professionals using a survey questionnaire based on the Excellence study. In addition, 22 in-depth interviews were conducted and organizational publications analyzed. The data revealed that the 4 generic principles studied are applicable in another culture. In Singapore, public relations has a lower status compared with advertising or marketing. Public relations is also not used as a strategic business tool and professionals do not practice strategic public relations in the city–state because of lack of proper training, among other things. Thus, although Singapore has emerged as an "Asian Tiger" the public relations profession has not developed as much as one would have expected.     

The Impact of "No Opinion" Response Options on Data Quality: Non-Attitude Reduction or an Invitation to Satisfice?

According to many seasoned survey researchers, offering a no-opinionoption should reduce the pressure to give substantive responsesfelt by respondents who have no true opinions. By contrast,the survey satisficing perspective suggests that no-opinionoptions may discourage some respondents from doing the cognitivework necessary to report the true opinions they do have. Weaddress these arguments using data from nine experiments carriedout in three household surveys. Attraction to no-opinion optionswas found to be greatest among respondents lowest in cognitiveskills (as measured by educational attainment), among respondentsanswering secretly instead of orally, for questions asked laterin a survey, and among respondents who devoted little effortto the reporting process. The quality of attitude reports obtained(as measured by over-time consistency and responsiveness toa question manipulation) was not compromised by the omissionof no-opinion options. These results suggest that inclusionof no-opinion options in attitude measures may not enhance dataquality and instead may preclude measurement of some meaningfulopinions.     

Assessing God Locus of Control as a Factor in College Students’ Alcohol Use and Sexual Behavior

Abstract. Objectives: This study explored God locus of control beliefs (ie, God's control over behavior) regarding their influence on alcohol use and sexual behavior as an alternative religiosity measure to religious behaviors, which does not capture perceived influence of religiosity. Additionally, demographic differences in religious beliefs were explored. Methods: College students aged 18–24 (N = 324) completed a survey between April 2012 and March 2013. Principal components and multivariate analyses were conducted. Results: Findings suggest that measures provide reliable, valid data from college students. God locus of control is linked to not consuming alcohol or engaging in sex. There were differences regarding relationship status and religious denomination. Conclusions: God locus of control beliefs are an appropriate construct for collecting data about college students’ religiosity. Furthermore, health educators at faith-based institutions could incorporate this construct into their programming, encouraging abstinence but also behaving responsibly for those who do drink and are sexually experienced.     

TOWARD A REVISED FRAMEWORK FOR EXAMINING BELIEFS ABOUT THE CAUSES OF POVERTY

This study uses survey data from Baltimore, Maryland to assess predictions from the dominant ideology thesis and the public arenas theory concerning causal beliefs about three specific types of poverty—welfare dependency, homelessness and impoverished migrant laborers. Findings indicate that the incidence and determinants of causal beliefs are more complex than has been reached in prior "generic' poverty research and the findings provide greater support for the public arenas theory. Three findings are of particular note: (1) sample respondents have distinctive causal beliefs for different types of poverty: for welfare dependency, individualistic beliefs are dominant; for homelessness, structural causes are emphasized; a causal "middle ground' is most popular for impoverished migrant laborers (2) status characteristics do not operate as determinants of causal beliefs in a straightfor-ward fashion for any of the three poverty types and, (3) variables that measure types of exposure to, and perceived racial composition of, the poor are also significant determinants of causal beliefs. The effects of variables that measure perceived racial composition are particularly strong and the pattern of "color coding' suggests that racial prejudice shapes causal beliefs about the plight of the poor. The implications of the findings for the mobility opportunities of the three impoverished groups are discussed.     

An organization-environment framework for assessing program implementation

Evaluations of health programs are typically conducted from a rational bureaucratic framework in which client change and client outcome are seen as logical outcomes of program activity. This paper proposes a theoretical framework for examining organizational consequences of program implementation. Factors in the internal environment (e.g., the hospital) and the external environment (e.g., the community) which contribute to the program's success or failure, are considered. Observational and structured interview data are used to compare two state funded perinatal projects, one an organizational "success" and the other a costly failure. Attributes of external environments which may be important to successful implementation include demand for services, provider competition, access to information, social beliefs, and professional commitment. Important features of the internal environment include host organization commitment and conflict, and structural attributes: complexity, formalization, centralization, and coordination. The paper concludes with theoretically-based questions which serve as guidelines for process evaluation.     

Justice and Gender: An Instrumental and Symbolic Explication

This study contrasts how men and women in public relations perceive a global standard of justice with how they experience justice issues instrumentally. Many of the differences that exist between men and women in public relations may be explained by the inherent differences between symbolic and instrumental beliefs about these issues.

The general impression derived from a survey of the literature is that the ideal of justice and the reality of women's experiences continue to diverge in many areas, despite considerable progress. (D. H. Broom, 1984, p. xv)     

RELIGION AND INTERGENERATIONAL ASSISTANCE: Distinct Differences by Adult Children's Gender and Parent's Marital Status

Using data from a national and intergenerational survey in 1997, this study examines the link between religion and intergenerational assistance between parents and adult children. Two possibilities are tested. First, religion and assistance are positively associated because religion promotes general prosocial and helping beliefs and behaviors. Second, assistance is greater between parents and adult children who are religiously congruent because strong intergenerational relations are based on parent-child consensus on values and beliefs. The hypotheses are tested separately for continuously married and divorced parents, and interaction models are estimated to determine if the effect of religion varies between adult daughters and sons. Findings support the second argument—religious congruence is more important than individual religiosity in influencing intergenerational assistance. The link between religion and assistance is positive among continuously married parents and adult children, but religion has a mostly negative effect among divorced parents and adult children. Assistance is especially low when either the divorced parent or adult child or both are evangelical Protestants. The disparity in the findings may highlight the different religious and family philosophies of conservative versus mainline religions.     

What the Polls Do Show: Toward Enhanced Survey Readings of Religion in Canada

Over the past two decades or so, survey research findings on religious activities and beliefs have been confusing, with the results of researchers and private pollsters frequently differing from those of Statistics Canada. In this research note, the authors use four national omnibus surveys conducted in 2012 to explore the extent to which such differences are due to measurement variations. Finding few noteworthy differences, they proceed to focus on the samples being used, and draw on illustrative data from 2012 and 2015 to argue that the differences in findings may in large part be due to differences in samples. The resolution of sampling problems, they acknowledge, is extremely difficult, but nonetheless is a goal that has to be pursued.     

Hypernetwork sampling: Duality and differentiation among voluntary organizations

One of the recurrent problems in the study of social organization is that survey researchers are forced to study individuals, while they are often interested in hypotheses about organizations or systems of organizations. This paper offers some methods which allow survey researchers to address hypotheses about the relations generated among individuals by organizations, the organizations themselves, and the relations among organizations. Estimators are developed for the number and size distribution of organizations in communities, the density of relations among individuals generated by organizations, the number and density of interorganizational linkages, and the amount of membership overlap among organizations. This approach combines Granovetter's idea of network sampling with Breiger's notion of the duality of persons and groups to produce a quantitative approach to the study of voluntary organization. We provide an illustration of the methods we develop by testing two of Blau's structural hypotheses on data concerning voluntary organizations. The hypotheses that structural differentiation increases with system size and that this increase is at a decreasing rate are strongly supported. The paper closes with some suggestions for further elaborations of the hypernetwork approach.     

Effectiveness of addiction science presentations to treatment professionals,using a modified Solomon study design

OBJECTIVES: Knowledge of addiction research findings is critical for healthcare professionals who treat addicted patients. However, there is little information available about the instructional effectiveness of lecture-slide presentations in changing knowledge vs. beliefs of such professionals. DESIGN: A modified Solomon four-group experimental design was used to assess the instructional effectiveness (knowledge gain vs. belief changes) of three-hour addiction science workshops presented to health-care professionals by neurobiologically-trained academic researchers. Effectiveness of the workshops was assessed by a 28-item questionnaire on participant versus control group knowledge/beliefs on addiction. Six-month follow-up questionnaires measured "retention" of knowledge and belief changes. RESULTS: The workshop participants showed significant knowledge gain and belief changes, whereas the two control groups showed no change in knowledge or beliefs. After six months, knowledge gains decreased, but were still higher than pre-test scores. In contrast, belief changes on three subscales persisted over six months in 40 to 52 percent of the subjects. CONCLUSIONS: These results illustrate a successful continuing education model by which academic researchers who are skilled teachers present a three-hour lecture-slide workshop with extensive question-and-answer sessions on addictions. We conclude that motivated health-care professionals can experience important knowledge gains and belief changes by participating in such workshops. In contrast to the transient retention of knowledge, belief changes persisted surprisingly well for at least six months in about half the subjects. These results suggest that long-term changes in the professional orientation of these health-care workers are possible.     

LEADERSHIP AND MEMBERSHIP IN THE NUCLEAR FREEZE MOVEMENT:

Participation in social movement activities is distinguished from occupancy of leadership positions in social movement organizations. Two alternative theoretical models derived from the resource mobilization literature, the progression and circulation models, are summarized and their implications regarding participation and leadership are specified. Hypotheses are enumerated for the explanatory factors of individual's self-interest and resources; attitudes, beliefs, and ideology; past organizational experience; background characteristics; and the nature of the association of the individual to the organization. Particular attention is paid to areas where the theoretical models indicate different relationships between the explanatory factors and the outcome variables of participation level and leadership status, and critical tests between the two models are specified. The hypotheses and critical tests are applied to data gathered from a survey of participants in the Cleveland nuclear freeze organization. Self-interest, resource and background characteristics are not found to be associated with either participation level or leadership status. Past experiences and beliefs are important in determining participation levels whereas leadership status is largely explained by the nature of organizational-individual association. The results of the critical testing indicate the circulation model fits the data better than the progression model. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed and some additional factors helpful in explaining the results are considered.     

Problems with the Doctrine of Interchangeable Indices

Survey researchers can choose (1) to maximize their accuracy in estimating the relations among a few abstract variables or (2) to maximize the number of variables covered. In the former case, many indicators per variable are required; in the latter case, few or one. Lazarsfeld's "doctrine of interchangeable indices" offers some support for the second approach, but this doctrine is shown to neglect or perpetuate three kinds of measurement problems: (1) attenuation of the relations between unmeasured abstract variables, (2) correlated measurement errors, and (3) low data quality and imprecision. An alternative form of the doctrine is presented which is more compatible with the implications of causal models.