Beyond Victim Blaming: Students’ Perceptions of Bystanders Who Fail to Intervene

ABSTRACT

Bystander intervention education has been a common feature on college campuses for more than a decade. Although research has explored the degree to which bystander training influences students’ attitudes toward sexual assault, their perceptions of their own efficacy to intervene, and their intentions to help others, very little is known about how such training impacts students’ perceptions of bystanders who knowingly fail to intervene. In other words, what impact is bystander education having on broader expectations for bystander behaviors? This research addresses this question using in-depth interview data from 51 college students. Results suggest that although students report a general expectation that bystanders should intervene in sexually threatening situations, intrapersonal, microsystem, exosystem, and macrosystem factors, nonetheless, interact with one another to excuse or justify nonintervention by bystanders. Implications for campus programming are discussed.     

Reference Groups,Mob Mentality,and Bystander Intervention: A Sociological Analysis of the Lara Logan Case1

Despite that it involves mobs, bystanders, and political theater—three classic concepts in social psychology—academics have neglected analyzing the Lara Logan sexual assault case through these lenses. I explore how the case has been discussed in the media and suggest that analysis of the mob and bystanders has been, oddly, lacking. I argue that the best reference group to use when discussing this case is not other journalists or even other women who have survived assaults, but is instead enemy women who have survived politically motivated wartime gang sexual assaults. Most observers have overlooked the relevant reference group due to focusing on the traits of the victim, rather than on the context of the event itself. I argue that the case conforms to important dimensions: (1) the sociological norm that gang violence involves premeditation, (2) an agreement of values among perpetrators, and (3) that the violence itself lacked cultural and social legitimacy. Logan was likely targeted because she was a “stranger”; she was saved, in part, for the same reason. The case illustrates known patterns of mob mentalities and bystander intervention, yet it is unlike most cases of both nonwartime gender violence and violence against journalists.     

The Bystander Approach: Strengths-Based Sexual Assault Prevention With At-Risk Groups

Bystander intervention is described as a promising approach for social workers engaged with groups labeled “at risk” for perpetrating sexual violence. An exploratory study was conducted with one at-risk group, student-athletes, to determine their willingness to intervene as bystanders in situations involving sexual violence. A survey was administered to 205 participants, focus groups held with nine teams, and individual interviews conducted with 22 student-athletes. Results indicate that the closeness of the team bond is the most significant predictor for willingness to intervene. Many student-athletes reported a willingness to intervene in situations involving sexual violence but need further skill development to do so effectively. Implications for social workers implementing the bystander approach with at-risk groups are discussed, such as skill development and utilization of the strengths perspective.     

Implications for Sexual Assault Prevention: College Students as Prosocial Bystanders

Abstract

Prosocial bystander interventions are promising approaches to sexual assault prevention on college campuses. Objective: To assess bystander attitudes among undergraduate students at a northeastern university. Participants: A convenience sample of 188 students from 4 undergraduate classes was surveyed during regularly scheduled class sessions. Methods: Participants completed a short survey on bystander efficacy, readiness to change, and barriers to intervention prior to the start of class. Results: The majority of students were not involved in activities or programs focused on sexual assault prevention. Although students agreed that violence could be prevented, they perceived many barriers to their own participation in intervention. Conclusions: There is a need for gender-targeted prevention programming that introduces the idea of prosocial bystander intervention, with a focus on increasing self-efficacy and lowering barriers.     

Using the Internet to prescreen participants for research on interpersonal violence: experimental design considerations

Internet-based testing has become increasingly popular in recent years due largely to the availability of computers and the Web to research participants. For researchers studying interpersonal violence, Internet-based methodologies can also be used as a prescreening device to identify a population of interest, such as individuals reporting violence in their relationships. However, several challenges exist with this approach. This article evaluates the use of an Internet-based prescreening device to identify potential participants for a study on interpersonal violence, highlighting challenges encountered with this methodology, and offers suggestions for improvement in experimental design when conducting Internet-based screenings of interpersonal violence.     

A qualitative investigation of risk and protective factors for interpersonal violence in adults on the autism spectrum

Abstract

Individuals on the autism spectrum are at an increased risk of experiencing violence. This study sought to understand the opinions of adults on the spectrum regarding potential risk and protective factors for interpersonal violence. Twenty-two adults (12 men; 18 to 53 years of age) participated in semi-structured qualitative interviews. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed. The results of the qualitative analysis identified individual and contextual risk and protective factors. Protective themes focused on individual needs (awareness of the self and the environment, interpersonal knowledge/skills, skill building strategies) and supportive contexts (benefits of a trusted person, advocates, fostering acceptance and inclusion). There is a need for strategies to decrease the vulnerability to, and the impact of, interpersonal violence. Individuals on the spectrum have the capacity to provide important information regarding safety promotion and risk factors for interpersonal violence, and their expertise should play a role in guiding efforts that promote safety.     

Men,masculinities, and gender-based violence: The broadening scope of recent research

Men's relationships to gender-based violence (GBV) have long been an area of sociological inquiry, but until recently men have primarily been framed as perpetrators of violence against women. More recently, research on men and GBV has broadened to include studying men as victims/survivors, as investigators and law enforcement officers, as passive or active bystanders, and as allies in working to address this social problem. We review this research in an effort to bridge these divergent bodies of work; we identify methodological trends and gaps in existing research, make recommendations for improved theoretical and methodological robustness, and suggest that research perspectives on men and GBV have shifted over time as wider understandings of gender and masculinities become more hopeful and more inclusive. While we see optimism and promise in new directions of GBV research, we urge ongoing research to retain the wisdoms and critical perspectives that marked the beginnings of GBV inquiry.     

The relationship between binge drinking and prosocial bystander behavior among college men

Abstract

Objectives: This study prospectively examined binge drinking’s effect on prosocial bystander behavior and indicators of bystander behavior: intentions to intervene, self-efficacy to intervene, and positive outcome expectancies for intervening. Participants: College men were recruited from February to April 2010. Methods: Pre- and posttest surveys were administered as part of a randomized controlled trial (n?=?743). Potential confounders were identified using Pearson product-moment correlations. Controlling for covariates, multiple linear regression was used to examine whether binge drinking was predictive of prosocial bystander behavior and indicators of bystander behavior. Results: Binge drinking was related to lower bystander behavior (p<.05), lower intentions to intervene (p<.001), and less positive outcome expectancies for intervening (p<.05). Conclusions: Binge drinking may reduce the ability to notice a risk situation and intervene as a prosocial bystander. Results highlight the need for bystander programs to address alcohol use within the context of bystander behavior.     

Meta-Analyses of the Intra- and Interpersonal Outcomes of Interpersonal Coordination

Interpersonal coordination, the extent to which social partners coordinate each other’s postures and mannerisms, acts as a “social glue” that serves both individual and social goals, such as producing prosocial behaviors and facilitating harmonious interactions. Research in this area has become prominent in a variety of domains both within and outside of psychology, forming a sizeable literature dedicated to investigating the causes and consequences of interpersonal coordination. We conducted a series of meta-analyses on studies that treated interpersonal coordination as an independent variable, in order to measure its effect on several intrapersonal (e.g., mood, need to belong) and interpersonal (e.g., prosocial behavior) outcomes, as well as several potential moderators (e.g., percentage of female participants) that may affect the strength of the effect. Overall, the results demonstrated that the positive effects of interpersonal coordination are robust, with a few exceptions specific to intrapersonal outcomes. These findings provide a much-needed quantitative summary of the literature on interpersonal coordination, and highlight areas that merit future research.     

Are abused women mentally ill?

A secondary data analysis study was conducted on Derogatis Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) data derived from a larger intervention study of community-based abused women (N = 50). The purpose was to improve understanding of the effect domestic violence has on mental health, given the symptomatology observed in this population. A psychological distress symptom profile was developed and compared with BSI normative data. Findings were unexpected and suggest the necessity to re-examine the assumptions harbored about interpersonal violence in research and practice.     

Narrative coherence and the trauma experience: an exploratory mixed-method analysis

The current study examines trauma narratives from 28 survivors of interpersonal violence. A mixed-method approach assessed coherence and explored narrative characteristics among differentially exposed groups. The quantitative analysis revealed: (1) exposure to repetitive interpersonal violence was described with greater perception of severity and emotional tone than single interpersonal violence episodes, and (2) exposure to interpersonal violence in childhood was described with greater emotional tone than exposure to interpersonal violence in adulthood. The qualitative analysis revealed: (1) traumatic events were connected to proceeding adverse experiences, (2) attempted avoidance of memories of the violence, (3) an altered view of the self, and (4) lacked recognition that the violence was abnormal. The study supports the "dose-response relationship" of trauma exposure, and the life-altering, transformative nature of trauma exposure.     

Bystander interventions for sexual assault and dating violence on college campuses: Are we putting bystanders in harm's way?

Objective: The present study investigated the well-being of bystanders who witness and intervene in sexual assault and dating violence situations on campus. Participants: Participants were 321 young men and women from a large university in the southeastern United States. Methods: Participants completed a survey at the end of the Spring semester of 2015 about risky situations they had witnessed, with follow-up questions about their responses to the situations (eg, whether they intervened or not) and feelings about their responses. Participants also completed standardized measures of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. Results: Over 90% of the participants reported witnessing at least 1 of the risky events presented to them, and approximately 50% reported intervening in events. Intervening was associated with positive feelings, but traumatic stress symptoms were related to witnessing events and intervening. Conclusions: Results have direct implications for developing appropriate training programs for bystander intervention programs on college campuses.     

Characteristics of female perpetrators and victims of dating violence

Although many researchers have explored the topic of dating violence, limited attention has been paid to female perpetrators. Very little research has examined variables that facilitate aggression for females in dating relationships. In an effort to investigate distinct types of violent behavior, the present study separated females who experience dating violence into three categories (bi-directional aggression, perpetrator-only, and victim-only) and compared them with a control group not previously exposed to interpersonal violence. The purpose of this study was to examine variables that discriminate violent females from non-violent females. Variables that were hypothesized to be associated with aggressive behavior and investigated in the current study were interparental aggression, self-esteem, love attitudes, and alcohol use. Three hundred female college students responded to multiple self-report questionnaires examining psychological correlates of dating violence. Females in the bi-directional aggression group were more likely to have witnessed their father abuse their mother and scored significantly lower on a measure of self-esteem than non-violent controls. Females in the control group demonstrated higher scores on a measure of mature and selfless love style than did the victim or perpetrator-only participants. There were no significant group differences regarding general alcohol consumption. Implications for prevention and intervention are presented and discussed.     

The effects of power on prosocial outcomes: A self-validation analysis

The present research distinguishes between primary (cognitive) and secondary (metacognitive) processes in the domain of power. Power is a central construct in economic decision making, influencing people’s thoughts and behavior in organizational, political, consumer, and interpersonal contexts. Whereas most research has discussed ways that power can influence primary cognition (e.g., increased self-focused thoughts, heuristic processing), we examine how power can influence secondary cognition (i.e., thinking about thinking). We argue that high (relative to low) power can increase reliance on one’s current thoughts, magnifying their influence on judgment. If thoughts are antisocial (prosocial), increased power will produce more antisocial (prosocial) judgments and behavior. We activated prosocial or antisocial concepts through priming before activating powerfulness or powerlessness. As predicted, primes impacted people’s self-perceptions of cooperation (Experiment 1) and the extent to which they were willing to help others (Experiment 2) when induced to feel powerful, but not when led to feel powerless.     

Prevalence and correlates of interpersonal violence victimization in a junior enlisted Navy cohort

This study assesses the prevalence and correlates of interpersonal violence victimization in a cohort of 493 male and 220 female junior Navy personnel who participated in a cross-sectional follow-up study on health-related behaviors. Survey data were obtained during 2000 about past-year prevalence of physical violence and sexual victimization. Chi-square tests of independence and multivariable logistic regression analyses were employed to estimate prevalence rates and to assess correlates of interpersonal violence. No gender differences were found for rates of violence victimization (16.4%) or sexual victimization (4.5%). Significant correlates of interpersonal violence victimization among males were depression and tobacco use; among females, significant correlates were depression and frequent heavy drinking. Findings suggest that large numbers of young enlisted adults serving in the military may be victims of interpersonal violence.     

Trauma reactions of bystanders and victims to repetitive abuse experiences

This study investigated psychological distress as measured by the Impact of Events Scale-Revised and physiological reactivity as measured by skin conductance and heart rate in bystanders as compared to direct victims of prevalent forms of repetitive abuse (e.g., bullying). Participants (N = 77) were interviewed twice: once to recall witnessing another person be abused repeatedly over time, and again to recall similar experiences as a victim. Present levels for bystander and victim distress were not significantly different, but distress levels were significantly greater for victim experiences at the time the repetitive abuse occurred. Scores for both groups were comparable to or exceeded scores associated with natural disasters and other life threatening experiences reported in the literature. Findings suggest repetitive abuse may affect bystanders and victims in similarly serious ways at the time the events occur and later in life.     

Recurrent issues in efforts to prevent homicidal youth violence in schools: expert opinions

Developmental research on social influences on adolescents can guide practices aimed to prevent homicidal youth violence. School shootings have repeatedly raised questions about the contributory role of bullying and entertainment violence, how news media publicity might produce copycat crimes, and whether stiffer criminal sanctions might have a deterrent effect. This article presents the thoughts and recommendations of a group of experts on these topics summarizing the current knowledge base. In brief, bullying reduction programs may be a useful early prevention effort. Television and video games with violent themes can encourage aggressive behavior, but these media can be used to teach more prosocial behavior as well. The potential copycat effects of highly publicized crimes might be diminished with more restrained reporting, although more research is needed. Finally, there is substantial evidence that increased criminal sanctions for youthful offenders have not had a deterrent effect.     

Developing “whole school” bystander interventions: The role of school-settings in influencing adolescents responses to dating violence and bullying

Bystander intervention programs have been introduced as innovative strategies to empower teens to intervene proactively when they witness bullying and dating violence (TDV) in their social environments. While there is promising research on the individual-level factors that influence students' willingness to intervene, there has been limited investigation on how teens' school environments encourage proactive responses. Through analysis of focus group data, this study revealed that teens are reluctant to employ bystander behaviors in any capacity. Some of the school-level factors that influenced their willingness to intervene include: trusting relationships with teachers; the perception that school personnel, rather than students, have more expertise to respond effectively; school environments that were tolerant of dating abuse; and ineffective school policies. Implications for creating “whole-school” responses to bullying and TDV will be discussed.     

Conflict and parochialism among combatants and civilians: Evidence from Ukraine

How does conflict affect prosocial and parochial preferences within a society? Our research considers the case of recent violence in Donbas, Ukraine where ethnic Russian separatists are battling the Ukrainian military. To evaluate social preferences, we utilize a non-costly dictator game with ethnic treatments among young ethnic Ukrainian male combatants and noncombatants in the eastern city of Kharkiv, which borders the Donbas region. At the onset of violence, we find no differences in how these men treat ethnic Russians in their local community compared to their own in-group. However, after a year of intense fighting with separatists in the nearby Donbas region, we find evidence of the erosion of fairness preferences and increased bias against ethnic Russians, especially among noncombatant civilians, underscoring how parochial responses to violence may extend beyond direct combat exposure mechanisms. Our results point to the short-term destabilizing effects of conflict on prosocial preferences with potential long-term consequences for entrenching parochial divisions.