‘Generation boomerang’ in Germany? Returning to the parental home in young adulthood

Leaving the parental home is not always a one-off event in the course of a person's life. Young adults can return one or more times before leaving home permanently. The aim of this article is to analyse the social and economic transition markers and socio-demographic factors which play a role in the return to the parental home of young adults in Germany. The analysis is based on the survey AID:A, conducted by the German Youth Institute in 2009. Data from 4300 young adults, aged 18–32 years, who left the parental home at least once, are used. Young adults are differentiated by their current residential status: living with at least one parent again (returners) or living outside the parental home (leavers). The results show that, the more financially and socially independent a young person is, the less likely they are to return to the family of origin. Furthermore, growing up in a two-parent family in West Germany as well as a strong relationship between fathers and sons increases the likelihood of returning to the parental home after leaving. Notably, it was also found that young adults of Turkish and Eastern European origin are more likely to return than those of German origin.     

Labor Market Penalties for Mothers in Italy

We use a large Italian employer-employee matched dataset to study how motherhood affects women’s working career in terms of labor force participation and wages. We confirm that the probability of exiting employment significantly increases for mothers of pre-school children; however, this is mitigated by higher job quality, human capital endowment and childcare accessibility. Most importantly, the availability of part-time jobs reduces their probability of moving out of the labor force. Women not leaving employment after becoming mothers experience lower wages than women with no pre-school child, and there are no signs of this gap closing 5 years after childbirth. Contrary to previous literature, the wage gap penalty emerges only among women working full-time, thanks to the high protection accorded to part-time jobs in Italy.     

The Timing of Leaving the Parental Home and Its Linkages to Other Life Course Events in Turkey

Abstract

This study employs the data of the 2003 Turkish Demographic and Health Survey to study the timing of leaving the parental home and the links between home leaving and other life course events (entry into labour force, family formation, and first birth) for three groups of home-leavers: early, on-time, and late. Results of the study suggest that the majority of the home-leavers are late home-leavers in Turkey. This pattern of parental home leaving observed in Turkey resembles the pattern which can found today in Mediterranean and Southern European countries. The median age at home leaving is found to be 24.4 years. In terms of gender differentials, the study implies that the timing of leaving the parental home for males (27.2 years) markedly differs from the timing of leaving the parental home for females (21.6 years). Results also imply the sequence of life-course events for males in Turkey: entry into labour force, marriage, the birth of first child, and home leaving. On the other hand, timing of home leaving for females was found to be in line with the timing of family formation. However, the home leaving experiencing by females does not mean a real home leaving in the context of Turkey; it is just a shifting from their own parental home to their husbands' parental home.     

Young people's educational aspirations: psychosocial factors and the home environment

Utilising data from Understanding Society (2010–2013), this study examined the contribution of young people's psychosocial and background factors and home environment to their educational aspirations in the UK. Young people's general well-being and self-efficacy emerged as good predictors of their educational aspirations as did some aspects of their home environment. Interestingly, filial dynamics such as emotional closeness to parents and cultural capital (e.g. participating in cultural events, discussing books) were better predictors of 10–15-year-olds’ aspirations than were more school-driven parent–child interactions (e.g. homework, extra-curricular activities). Furthermore, the findings from this study showed no shortage in young people's educational aspirations although interesting demographic trends emerged with certain groups (i.e. preadolescents, males) being less aspirant than middle adolescents and females. These findings have significant implications for family and educational policy, especially with regard to ‘raising aspirations’ and reducing early school leaving and, also, for reconsidering the role of the home environment as a web of emotionally and intellectually charged relationships between parents and children rather than an extension of the school day. Finally, discussions on young people's educational aspirations should not be polarised but informed by notions of opportunity (structure) and what young people make of it (agency).     

Life Course,Gender, and Participation in Voluntary Organizations in Italy

This article investigates the gender differences in participation in voluntary organizations across the life course in Italy. It shows that three forms of engagement in voluntary organizations—donating money, attending meetings, and doing unpaid work—may depend on some stages of the life course—leaving the parental home, forming a union, and becoming a parent—as it is plausible that they may change personal resources and pose constraints or provide opportunities for involvement. Using the household survey “ISTAT Multipurpose Survey—Aspects of daily life”, the article finds that while leaving the parental home is positively associated with both men’s and women’s involvement, forming a union, and being a parent is detrimental for women’s involvement and not for men’s. This pattern indicates that gender roles may constrain more women’s than men’s probability of participation in voluntary organizations.     

Job access after leaving education: a comparative analysis of young women and men in rural Germany

Rural labour markets for youth are an interesting research area for labour force transition studies because gender differences begin to appear with the out-migration that leads to a shortage of young women in Europe. Whilst existing studies provide insight into this migration flow, little is known about the young women and men who remain in the labour force in rural areas. The aim of this study is to provide insight into the determinants of job access after leaving education in Germany among the young population aged 15–29 based on the Labour Force Survey of 2002–2009. First, an empirical analysis of student to employment flow in rural areas with respect to social position (degree discipline, age, and socio-professional category) has been conducted. Second, gender-specific multinomial logit models are used to estimate the determinants of access to a first job without a long-term unemployment spell. The results suggest that there are substantive differences in student to employment flow between female and male samples for the variables urbanisation degree of residence (rural, urban, and peri-urbain) and marital status. Contrary to our expectations, living in rural areas does not suggest a significant negative effect in accessing a job within a year. In line with previous studies, being married has a negative influence on female graduates but is positive for their male counterparts.     

Family Relationships From Adolescence to Early Adulthood: Changes in the Family System Following Firstborns' Leaving Home

This study charted the course of parent–child and sibling relationships from early adolescence to early adulthood and examined how these relationships changed following firstborns' departure from their parents' home for the first time. Data were drawn from a 10‐year longitudinal study of family relationships. Participants included mothers, fathers, and first‐ and secondborn children from 184 White, working and middle class families. Multilevel models revealed declines in parent–child conflict, acceptance, and sibling negativity and increases or U‐shaped patterns in sibling and parent–child intimacy over time. Birth Order × Leaving Home interactions revealed that firstborns' leaving home related to changes in family relationship qualities for both first‐ and secondborns, with relationships improving for firstborns and no changes or declines in relationship quality for secondborns. Overall, the results highlight the inter‐relatedness of family subsystems.     

Quick,uncertain, and delayed adults: timing,sequencing and duration of youth-adult transitions in Canada

The transition from youth to adulthood in western societies has become more prolonged and complex as traditional societal norms have lost influence. Using retrospective data from a cohort of 43-year-old Canadians surveyed in 2010 (n?=?405), we mapped the timing, sequencing, and duration of ‘first stage’ youth-adult transitions (leaving home, finishing formal education, obtaining a full-time job) and ‘second stage’ youth-adult transitions (marriage, parenthood, home ownership). Latent profile analysis identified five distinct transition profiles – norm-setters, quick adults, uncertain adults, adult students, and delayed adults – with different amounts and timing of post-secondary educational investment playing an important profile-shaping role. Although youth-adult transitions have become less standardized and more individualized, especially for first stage transitions, these transitions are still quite structured and continue to be affected by gender and family socioeconomic status.     

Observed Interactions Indicate Protective Effects of Relationships With Parents for Referred Adolescents

This study examined whether the quality of parent–adolescent interactions moderate the association between stressful life events and internalizing and externalizing problems in referred adolescents (N=101, M age 13.41 years, SD=1.81). Adolescents and their parents reported on psychological problems at the time of referral and 4 years later. At follow‐up parents reported on stressful life events and an interaction task was conducted to observe autonomy and relatedness promoting behaviors. For adolescents exposed to stressful events, levels of internalizing and externalizing problems went up except if observed parent–adolescent interactions were characterized by high autonomy and relatedness. The results implied that autonomy and relatedness protect adolescents against the deleterious effects of stressful life events. These findings build on previous research showing for psychologically vulnerable adolescents that parenting that promotes autonomy while maintaining relatedness is associated with resilience in times of stress.     

Ethnic Differences in Returning Home: Explanations From a Life Course Perspective

Ethnic differences in leaving and returning home may reflect varying cultural norms regarding intergenerational coresidence, but also differences in transitions in linked domains, for example, employment and partnership transitions. This study uses Dutch population register data to compare returning home among second‐generation Turks, Moroccans, Surinamese, and Antilleans with native Dutch who had left the parental home between age 16 and 28 in the period 1999 to 2011 (N = 194,020). All second‐generation groups were found to be more likely to return home than native Dutch. A large part of these differences was related to the timing and occurrence of other key events in the life course, such as age at leaving home and partnership dissolution. Although the impact of partnership dissolution on returning home was found to be strong among all origin groups, it was less pronounced among second‐generation youth, particularly Turks and Moroccans, than native Dutch youth. Possible explanations and implications are discussed.     

Violence against children who have left home,lived on the street and been domestic workers — A study of reintegrated children in Kagera Region,Tanzania

Children all over the world experience physical, emotional and sexual violence. Children leaving home for street or domestic work are especially vulnerable. Strategies for facilitating reintegration for these children are advocated, but enough is still not known about the outcome of such reintegration in terms of violence and abuse. The study aimed at examining the extent of violence against children who have left home in Kagera Region, Tanzania as well as in different stages of their trajectory of life, i.e. before leaving home, on the street, as domestic workers, and after reintegration. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 214 participants aged 13–24, who had earlier left their homes and had now been reintegrated into the local community for at least one year. The study also examined the residual violence still taking place after reintegration and its potential impact on their psychological quality of life. This study, first of its kind in the country measuring level of violence for children who have left home as well as after reintegration, offered a unique opportunity to compare level of violence with other nationally conducted studies on violence against children recruited from the home setting. The result showed a significantly higher overall prevalence of violence against the children who left home compared to the national average. After reintegration, the overall prevalence of violence had declined significantly (p-value < 0.001) and to the same level as the national average, showing that reintegration can be successful.The group still facing violence showed lower psychological quality of life, which emphasises the need for continued preventive work to reduce the overall violence against children in society, with special emphasis on orphans and other vulnerable children most at risk of leaving their homes.     

Leaving Home Early: Passing from Girlhood to Womanhood

This paper presents a case study of a young woman’s narrative of leaving home and her transition to adulthood. The case study is part of a larger research project about young women with an experience of an early break-up from home, through running away or being thrown out. Empirical material underlying this paper consists of a qualitative study of 12 young women that have been interviewed. The aim of the study is to understand how events like running away/being thrown out of home influences their transition to adulthood. The particular narrative demonstrates how a young woman presents and accounts for such a dramatic event as running away or being thrown out from home, and how that is understood in relation to her adulthood. A further aim is to illustrate how social services efforts are reflected in her narrative.     

Family Relationships and Adolescent Psychosocial Outcomes: Converging Findings From Eastern and Western Cultures

This study investigated the role of parent–adolescent relationships in mediating the association between family‐related negative life events and adolescent depressive symptoms and problem behaviors among 1,696 eleventh graders from the United States (n=201), China (n=502), Korea (n=497), and Czech Republic (n=496). Results indicated that perceived parental involvement and parent–adolescent conflict mediated the link between family‐related life events and adolescent depressed mood. The path from family‐related life events to adolescent problem behaviors was mediated by perceived parental involvement, parent–adolescent conflict, and perceived parental sanctions of adolescent misconduct. With the exception of minor cross‐cultural differences in the magnitude of associations among variables, this study revealed considerable similarity in the association of family factors with adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. The findings contribute to the growing literature on culture‐general developmental processes.     

The Celtic Tiger and home leaving among Irish young adults

This paper examines the effect of local economic growth on whether young adults move out of the parental home to form new households—an important milestone in the transition to adulthood. I use the placement of foreign direct investment during the Celtic Tiger, the large economic expansion in Ireland during the 1990s, to estimate the impact of local job growth on the likelihood that young adults leave home. This paper contributes to the literature by exploiting an exogenous shock to the local labor market to identify the main effect of employment growth on home leaving behavior. The results show that local economic growth increases the probability that young adults leave home particularly for the well-educated young adults most likely to be employed in the factories that opened during the period.     

Extending and Expanding Parenthood: Parental Support to Young Adult Children

Today’s transition to adulthood in the United States is complex and drawn out. Current economic and social conditions favor young workers who have completed post‐secondary education, resulting in many young adults delaying exiting the family home, marriage, and parenthood. The role of parental support (both affective and instrumental) in navigating this period of development is becoming increasingly important and plays a substantial role in reproducing inequality across generations. Informed by the life course perspective, this review provides readers with a basic understanding of what types of support parents provide, when it is expected and received, and finally, how it is related to attainment and the quality of the parent–child relationship throughout young adulthood. We conclude with a discussion of how class differences in intergenerational support intersect with institutional factors to enhance the reproduction of inequality and how the new demands for parental support throughout young adulthood is more than many families can provide.     

Splitting the Marital Home: Gendered Property Division and Postdivorce Foreclosure

Divorce proceedings often involve splitting the marital home and contested claims over property and other assets. This case study examines the divorce–foreclosure nexus through key informant interviews, analysis of divorce files and foreclosure notices, and a review of court records on debt, remarriage, and criminal offending. We found that property disposition is a gendered process, with men receiving the marital home 1.7 times more often than women, even though they had more court debt, job instability, and criminal offending than their wives. Male defendants who hired an attorney received the house 85% of the time (52% for women defendants with an attorney). In postdivorce, men were more likely than women to remarry, have second mortgages, and to reoffend. We conclude that “equal” rather than “equitable” property division would reduce women’s structural disadvantage in divorce settlements and postdivorce home ownership.     

‘Live to Work’ or ‘Work to Live’? A Qualitative Study of Gender and Work–life Balance among Men and Women in Mid‐life

Many contemporary studies of ‘work–life balance’ either ignore gender or take it for granted. We conducted semi‐structured interviews with men and women in mid‐life (aged 50 to 52 years) in order to compare their experiences of work–life balance. Our data suggest that gender remains embedded in the ways that respondents negotiate home and work life. The women discussed their current problems juggling a variety of roles (despite having no young children at home), while men confined their discussion of such conflicts to the past, when their children were young. However, diversity among men (some of whom ‘worked to live’ while others ‘lived to work’) and women (some of whom constructed themselves in relation to their families, while others positioned themselves as ‘independent women’) was apparent, as were some commonalities between men and women (both men and women constructed themselves as ‘pragmatic workers’). We suggest ways in which gender‐neutral theories of work–life balance may be extended.     

Exploring the Domestic Homes of Sikhs in Finland as a “Cosmos of Senses”

The domestic home plays an important role in the process of socialization. In the context of migration, home becomes even more meaningful as a site for socialization, since it provides—next to the Internet, cultural events and places of religious worship—one of the few sites where young children can learn about their parent’s cultural and religious traditions in their new homelands. Grounded in data gathered through ethnographic fieldwork, this article seeks to gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which the domestic space of home is involved in the process through which young Sikhs who are growing up in Finland are made familiar with their parents’ religion. To reach this objective, I will examine home as a “cosmos of senses” that has been created by its inhabitants and the practices they perform in the course of everyday life. Applying the ethnographic lens in the study of the domestic home of Sikhs will also help us to gain a more profound understanding of Sikhism as a lived religion, as the findings presented in this article show.