Measuring inequality of opportunity through between-group inequality components

Opportunity egalitarians support rich-to-poor redistribution whenever this allows for the compensation of income disparities due to non-responsible choices (circumstances). In this paper we focus on the measurement of opportunity inequality within Roemer’s (Philos Public Aff 22:146–166, 1993) pragmatic theory where a disjoint and exhaustive partition rule is assumed such that individuals within the same population can be grouped depending on the sole circumstances. Given entropy-based, deprivation-based and welfaristic inequality decomposition procedures, we show that the between-group Gini component from Dagum’s decomposition is the only well known between-group inequality index satisfying the Pigou-Dalton principle of transfer as reformulated for opportunity egalitarianism.     

Vocal Cues Underlying Youth and Adult Portrayals of Socio-emotional Expressions

Despite known differences in the acoustic properties of children’s and adults’ voices, no work to date has examined the vocal cues associated with emotional prosody in youth. The current study investigated whether child (n = 24, 17 female, aged 9–15) and adult (n = 30, 15 female, aged 18–63) actors differed in the vocal cues underlying their portrayals of basic emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness) and social expressions (meanness, friendliness). We also compared the acoustic characteristics of meanness and friendliness to comparable basic emotions. The pattern of distinctions between expressions varied as a function of age for voice quality and mean pitch. Specifically, adults’ portrayals of the various expressions were more distinct in mean pitch than children’s, whereas children’s representations differed more in voice quality than adults’. Given the importance of pitch variables for the interpretation of a speaker’s intended emotion, expressions generated by adults may thus be easier for listeners to decode than those of children. Moreover, the vocal cues associated with the social expressions of meanness and friendliness were distinct from those of basic emotions like anger and happiness respectively. Overall, our findings highlight marked differences in the ways in which adults and children convey socio-emotional expressions vocally, and expand our understanding of the communication of paralanguage in social contexts. Implications for the literature on emotion recognition are discussed.     

Measuring inequality of opportunity with imperfect data: the case of Turkey

The measurement of inequality of opportunity has hitherto not been attempted in a number of countries because of data limitations. This paper proposes two alternative approaches to circumventing the missing data problems in countries where a demographic and health survey (DHS) and an ancillary household expenditure survey are available. One method relies only on the DHS, and constructs a wealth index as a measure of economic advantage. The alternative method imputes consumption from the ancillary survey into the DHS. In both cases, we compute a lower bound estimator of the share of (ex-ante) inequality of opportunity in total inequality. Parametric and non-parametric estimates are calculated for each method, and the parametric approach is shown to yield preferable lower-bound measures. In an application to the sample of ever-married women aged 30–49 in Turkey, inequality of opportunity accounts for at least 26% (31%) of overall inequality in imputed consumption (the wealth index).     

Ethnische Bildungsungleichheit zu Schulbeginn

The present paper aims to explain ethnic educational inequality upon starting school, it considers as an example the children’s school readiness, and focuses on preschool attendance as a main determinant. The start of the children’s school career is mainly presumed to be influenced by the skills acquired in their preschool years. On the basis of the data of the school entrance examination of the City of Osnabrück for the years 2000 to 2005, ethnic differences at the end of their preschool time can be detected. These differences still persist when controlling for family background. However, when the duration of preschool attendance is taken into account, the ethnic effect on school readiness decreases, disappearing completely when additionally controlling for the children’s cognitive and linguistic skills. Further analyses show that preschool attendance affects school readiness both directly and indirectly (via cognitive and linguistic skills). The results emphasize the relevance of preschool attendance within the framework of preschool education.     

An Investigation of Socially Advantaged and Disadvantaged Turkish Mothers’ Views About Training on Preventing Children From Sexual Abuse

ABSTRACT

This study aims to investigate the views of socially advantaged (N = 8) and disadvantaged mothers (N = 8) whose children are aged between 48 and 66 months old about the issue of sexual abuse before and after the training provided to them. The views of mothers in both groups were investigated before and after the 5-week experience-based training about my body belongs to me, knowing and expressing feelings, good and bad touch, good and bad secrets, knowing how to say no, and help resources. The data were analyzed using content analysis methods. The study showed that the mothers have inaccurate or insufficient information and approaches about preventing sexual abuse. However, short-term training provided to the mothers changed their views, and the mothers in the disadvantaged group gained more awareness. The mothers in both groups stated that sexual abuse prevention trainings should be disseminated in preschool institutions.     

Dating and Sexual Behavior Among Single Parents of Young Children in the United States

Theory and research on partnered parents suggests trade-offs between parenting and sexuality, with those trade-offs most pronounced among mothers of young children. However, little research has focused on how a growing demographic of single parents negotiates dating and sexual activity. The current study drew upon a 2012 nationally representative sample of 5,481 single Americans 21 years of age and older, of whom 4.3% were parents of a child age five or younger. Dependent variables were sexual thoughts, frequency of sexual activity, number of sexual partners in the past year, dates during the previous three months, and whether one was actively seeking a relationship partner. Covariates included parental age, sex/gender, sexual orientation, education, and income. Using the entire sample of singles, we found no main effects of number (0, 1, 2+) of children aged five years and younger or number of children aged two years and younger on dating and sexual behavior variables. Next, using analyses restricted to single parents (n = 2,121), we found that single parents with a child aged five years or younger, adjusting for covariates, reported greater frequency of sexual activity and first dates but no differences in other outcomes compared with single parents of older children.     

Toward a generation free of tuberculosis: TB disease and infection in individuals of college age in the United States

Objectives: To assess the magnitude of active TB disease and latent TB infection (LTBI) in young adults of college age. Participants: Individuals who were aged 18–24 years in 2011 were used as a proxy for college students. Methods: Active TB cases reported to the 2011 US National TB Surveillance System (NTSS) were included. LTBI prevalence was calculated from the 2011–2012 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The 2011 American Community Survey was used to calculate population denominators. Analyses were stratified by nativity. Results: Active TB disease incidence among persons aged 18–24 years was 2.82/100,000, 18.8/100,000 among foreign-born individuals and 0.9/100,000 among US-born individuals. In 2011, 878 TB cases were reported; 629 (71.6%) were foreign-born. LTBI prevalence among persons of 18–24 years was 2.5%: 8.7% and 1.3% among foreign-born and US-born, respectively. Conclusion: Active screening and treatment programs for foreign-born young adults could identify TB cases earlier and provide an opportunity for prevention efforts.     

Differential Gaze Behavior towards Sexually Preferred and Non-Preferred Human Figures

The gaze pattern associated with image exploration is a sensitive index of our attention, motivation, and preference. To examine whether an individual's gaze behavior can reflect his or her sexual interest, this study compared gaze patterns of young heterosexual men and women (M = 19.94 years, SD = 1.05) while they viewed photographs of plain-clothed male and female figures aged from birth to 60 years old. The analysis revealed a clear gender difference in viewing sexually preferred figure images. Men displayed a distinctive gaze pattern only when viewing 20-year-old female images, with more fixations and longer viewing times dedicated to the upper body and waist–hip regions. Women also directed more attention at the upper body on female images in comparison to male images, but this difference was not age-specific. Analysis of local image salience revealed that observers' eye-scanning strategies could not be accounted for by low-level processes, such as analyzing local image contrast and structure, but were associated with attractiveness judgments. The results suggest that the difference in cognitive processing of sexually preferred and non-preferred figures can be manifested in gaze patterns associated with figure viewing. Thus, eye-tracking holds promise as a potential sensitive measure for sexual preference, particularly in men.     

Digitally amplified practices: Beyond binaries and towards a profile of multiple digital coadjuvants

ABSTRACT

To examine the agentic conditions afforded through the use of digital tools in play-based settings, the Vygotskian (1997a, 1997b) concept of imitation was used to study the pedagogical practices of two teachers over two years (Group 1: 3–5.8 years, mean 4.5 years; Group 2: 4.7–6.7, mean 4.5). Rather than a static view of digital technology, where screen time acts as a proxy for understanding the child’s experience, this study found a complex profile of practices where digital tool use could not be separated from the existing preschool program. It is argued that these digitally amplified practices, named as coadjuvants, support children’s development.     

A reconsideration of the tradeoffs in the new human development index

This paper demonstrates that the perfect tradeoff implication of the old Human Development Index can be avoided by employing a notion of imperfect tradeoff in the characterization of the Human Development Index. The resulting index is shown to be ordinally equivalent to the Chakravarty (Rev Dev Econ 7:99–114, 2003) generalized Human Development Index.     

Severity and determinants of stunting in children under age 2 years in Odisha (India): a tribal v/s non-tribal analysis

Prevalence of stunting among India’s tribal under-five children has witnessed a 3% annual decline in the last 8 years. Cross-sectional data of 1000 children (287 tribal and 713 non-tribal) aged 0–23 months from Odisha’s Rapid Survey of Children (RSOC, 2014) was analysed to identify the predictors of stunting and severe stunting among tribal children and to suggest policy and programme implications. Results show significant determinants of childhood stunting to be birth order, maternal illiteracy and determinants for severe stunting were maternal age <18 years at marriage and <20 years at birth, and <3 antenatal clinic visits. Severe stunting in tribal children was predicted by basic causes: poverty and maternal age <20 years at first birth and age <18 years at marriage. Findings strongly suggest to accelerate efforts towards reducing childhood stunting in Odisha more specifically among tribal children for whom a special strategy is urgently warranted.     

Analysis of the changing relationship between peer acceptance and academic achievement in adolescents / Análisis de la relación variable entre la aceptación entre iguales y el rendimiento académico de los adolescentes

Peer interactions in the context of group-level relationships have significant consequences on social adjustment across the lifespan of children and adolescents. Indeed, peer relations change systematically with individuals’ development. This study examined the effect of positive peer interactions measured as peer acceptance on academic achievement during the adolescence developmental stage. Participants were 766 students aged 11–16 years old. Adolescents completed a sociometric measure of peer acceptance. Academic achievement data were obtained from students’ report card grades. Regression analyses indicated that peer acceptance predicted academic achievement, and also a moderation effect was found displaying a higher impact of peer acceptance on academic achievement for younger adolescents than for older adolescents. It is suggested that improving peer relationships within the group, especially at early adolescence, can be a target of intervention to improve academic functioning at school.     

Sexual Cognition Guides Viewing Strategies to Human Figures

Gaze patterns to figure images have been proposed to reflect the observer's sexual interest, particularly for men. This eye-tracking study investigated how individual differences in sexual motivation tendencies are manifested in naturalistic gaze patterns. Heterosexual men and women (M = 21.0 years, SD = 2.1) free-viewed plain-clothed male and female figures, aged 10, 20, and 40 years old, while their eye movements were recorded. Questionnaires were used to measure sexual cognitions, including sensation seeking and sexual compulsivity, sexual inhibition and excitation, and approach and avoidance responses to sexual stimuli. Our analysis showed a clear role of sexual cognitions in influencing gaze strategies for men. Specifically, men who scored higher on sexual compulsivity dedicated more gaze to the waist–hip region when viewing figures of their preferred sexual partners than men who scored lower on sexual compulsivity. Women's sexual cognitions showed no clear effect on the gaze pattern in viewing figures of their preferred age and gender of sexual partners, suggesting women's gaze is unlikely to be a straightforward reflection of their sexual preferences. The findings further suggest that men's gaze allocation is driven by sexual preferences and supports the utility of eye tracking in the assessment of male sexual interest.     

Family Network,Workplace Network,and Their Influence on Condom Use: A Qualitative Study Among Older Female Sex Workers in China

The objective of this study was to qualitatively explore the components of social networks and their influence on condom use among female sex workers (FSWs) aged 35 years and older in China. In-depth interviews with 63 older FSWs and 6 focus group interviews with pimps and owners of roadside salons and hotels were conducted in 3 Chinese cities. The mean age of participants was 42.6 years old (SD = 6.9 years) and the mean age of starting sex work was 38.6 years old (SD = 6.6 years). Two types of networks that influenced condom use were identified: family networks (relationship with children and husbands) and workplace networks (relationship with peers, clients, pimps, and owners). Relationships between older FSWs and their children negatively influenced condom use. Low levels of network support and norms regarding condom use were observed in the relationship between older FSWs and their clients, whereas positive social support and norms were prevalent among older FSWs who had frequent contact with peers. Norms for condom use existed among pimps and owners but were counterbalanced by monetary gains. Future human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) interventions for older FSWs should take the different features of social network components into consideration.     

Behavioral and Socioemotional Adjustment in International Adoptees: A Comparison Between Italian and Spanish Adoptive Parents’ Reports

Dominated by intracultural comparisons between adopted and nonadopted children, adoption research has until now paid little attention to cross-cultural differences in the adoptees’ behavioral and socioemotional adjustment. The present study is aimed at comparing children adopted in two different countries—Italy and Spain—and at verifying, through their parents’ perceptions, the extent to which cultural context may contribute to shaping children's emotional and behavioral problems. A sample of 207 international adoptees (127 Italian and 80 Spanish) aged between 6 and 14 years was studied. The children's adjustment was assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist, which was filled out by the adoptive parents. Results indicated the presence of more similarities than differences between Italian and Spanish subjects: children adopted both in Italy and Spain between 3 and 5 years old were more likely to exhibit behavior problems than were children who entered the adoptive family at any other age. Some differences related to the birth country also emerged.     

Inequality of opportunity in the land of opportunities, 1968–2001

We measure inequality of opportunity for earnings acquisition in the U.S. between 1968 and 2001. Following recent theories of social justice, earnings determinants are divided into two parts: Circumstances, which are characteristics outside individual control and effort representing factors impacting earnings but under individuals’ responsibility. Equality of opportunity requires that inequality of circumstances must be corrected while differences of effort must remain unaltered. Circumstances are represented by parental education and occupation, ethnic origin, place of birth and age. Effort is modeled with schooling choices and labour supply decisions. Using the PSID from 1968 to 2001, we provide two alternative assessments of inequality of opportunity using counterfactual distributions. The statistical framework is semi-parametric and builds on duration models. Finally, we conclude that inequality of opportunity represents between 20 and 43% of earnings inequality, but decreases all over the period reaching around 18% in 2001.     

Inequality of opportunity in Italy

In this paper we provide a methodology to measure opportunity inequality and to decompose overall income inequality in an “ethically offensive” and an “ethically acceptable” part. Moreover, we analyze inequality of opportunity in Italy. According to our results, inequality of opportunity accounts for about 20% of overall income inequality in Italy. Moreover, the regions in the South are characterized by a higher degree of opportunity inequality than the regions in the North, especially when considering population subgroups by gender.     

Can preschool socioeconomic composition moderate relationships between family environment and Chinese children's early academic and social outcomes?

Research on primary and secondary school composition has shown that a school's socioeconomic status, as an aggregated and stratified index, has a contextual effect on children's school performance. For Chinese children, preschool is their first formal schooling experience. Preschools are segregated by the enrolled children's socioeconomic status. However, no studies have yet examined the role of preschool socioeconomic status in young Chinese children.Taking family socioeconomic status as the structure index and the home learning environment and authoritative parenting as the process indexes, the current study aimed to examine how preschool socioeconomic status operates independently and moderates the family environment to determine Chinese children's early academic and social development. Data were obtained from 826 children aged 36–74 months from 29 urban preschools in Beijing. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses showed that preschool socioeconomic status significantly directly predicted children's academic skills but not their social skills. Participation in higher socioeconomic status preschools appeared to compensate for the literacy skills of children from a lower family socioeconomic status, and it reinforced the positive effects of authoritative parenting on the children's social skills. These results suggest that the optimal development of young children depends on the “fit” between their family's environmental characteristics and the preschool in which they enrolled.     

Listening to the voices of children: understanding the human rights priorities of children with disability in Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea

In developing countries, children with disability lack basic services yet their voices are missing in the development agenda. This article reports on research to investigate the human rights needs and priorities of 89 children with disability aged 5–18 years in Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea. An accessible and inclusive research method was developed to enable children with diverse disabilities to communicate their own views via visual, audio and tactile means. Data were analysed in relation to the Articles of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, identifying a wide range of priority areas including recreation, leisure and cultural life; employment; home and family life; and education. It is proposed that policy and programme responses must take a holistic view of children and their needs, affirming but thinking beyond the importance of education, to address the complexity of the systemic disadvantage faced by children with disability.