Self-Other Orientation and Sex-Roles Orientation of Men and Women Who Remarry

Remarried men and women were more oriented to a balance between self interests and the other's interest in the remarriage decision than in the first marriage decision. In-depth interviews showed that these men and women used a similar balance when making the remarriage decision but that they arrived there by different avenues. The balance came from the women beginning to include self interests more and the men beginning to include the other's interest more. These remarried men and women also perceived themselves to be more nontraditional in sex-role orientation at the remarriage decision. Gilligan's Ethic of Care, a cogtnitive theory, was used to explain the change in self-other and sex-role orientation. Recommendations were made for using this theoretical framework in marital therapy.     

Social Sources of Information in the Development of Self*

Interpersonal and cultural sources of information in the development of self are compared. Specifically, this involves the comparison of the effects of the appraisals of significant others and self-perception using shared criteria. Factors that affect the importance of these two processes, such as the presence of institutionalized indicators, the visibility of the behavior for others, and normative barriers to evaluative communication, are discussed. Finally, empirical evidence is presented on the relative effects of significant others' appraisals and cultural shared indicators of academic ability and physical attractiveness on corresponding self-ratings for children in grades 4–8 and grade 12. Self-appraisals of ability are found to be more highly related to objective variables than are self appraisals of physical attractiveness, suggesting that culturally-based self-perception is more important when there are institutionalized indicators for an attribute. The relationship between others' appraisal and self-appraisals of ability are largely spurious, casting doubt on previous research that relied only on zero-order correlations. Significant others' appraisals are not important for either self-ratings of ability or physical attractiveness.     

Happy Marriage,Happy Life? Marital Quality and Subjective Well‐being in Later Life

The authors examined associations between marital quality and both general life satisfaction and experienced (momentary) well‐being among older husbands and wives, the relative importance of own versus spouse's marital appraisals for well‐being, and the extent to which the association between own marital appraisals and well‐being is moderated by spouse's appraisals. Data are from the 2009 Disability and Use of Time daily diary supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (N = 722). One's own marital satisfaction is a sizable and significant correlate of life satisfaction and momentary happiness; associations do not differ significantly by gender. The authors did not find a significant association between spouse's marital appraisals and own well‐being. However, the association between husband's marital quality and life satisfaction is buoyed when his wife also reports a happy marriage, yet flattened when his wife reports low marital quality. Implications for understanding marital dynamics and well‐being in later life are discussed.     

Occupational Self‐Direction,Values, and Egalitarian Relationships: A Study of Dual‐Earner Couples

This study examines the associations between husbands' and wives' experiences at work and their attitudes about and behaviors in marriage, using a framework informed by the ideas of Kohn (1969, 1977) . Specifically, it was hypothesized that experiences of self‐direction at work would be associated with greater endorsement of values associated with self‐direction. Further, it was predicted that those who value self‐direction more would both prefer and adopt more egalitarian arrangements in their marriages. These hypotheses were tested with a sample of 167 dual‐earner couples. Results supported the hypotheses and suggested that values mediate the relationships between occupational self‐direction and both attitudes about marital roles and the division of household labor. The pattern of results suggests that this framework is a useful perspective for examining the construct of marital equality.     

Interparental Relationship Sensitivity Leads to Adolescent Internalizing Problems: Different Genotypes,Different Pathways

Several studies have established that child interparental conflict evaluations link parent relationship functioning and adolescent adjustment. Using differential susceptibility theory and its vantage sensitivity complement as their framework, the authors examined differences between adolescents who vary in the DRD4 7 repeat genotype (i.e., 7+ vs. 7?) in how both interparental conflict and positivity affect adolescents' evaluations of interparental conflict (i.e., threat appraisals) and how these evaluations affect internalizing problems. Results from longitudinal multiple‐group path models using PROSPER data (N = 452) supported the hypothesis that threat appraisals for 7+ adolescents would be more affected by perceptions of interparental positivity compared to 7? adolescents; however, threat appraisals for 7+ adolescents were also less affected by interparental conflict. Among 7? adolescents, interparental conflict perceptions were associated with higher threat appraisals, and no association was found for perceptions of positivity. For adolescents of both genotypes, higher threat was associated with greater internalizing problems.     

When grandchildren grow up: Role transition and family solidarity among baby boomer grandchildren and their grandparents

Research on grandchild-grandparent relationships has largely focused on juvenile and adolescent grandchildren. However, this research examines the connection between adolescent-to-adult role transition by grandchildren, and perceptions of intergenerational solidarity with their grandparents. What are the effects of grandchildren's changing employment, marital, and family status on family solidarity with grandparents? Using OLS multiple regression analysis, pooled data from five waves of the University of Southern California Longitudinal Study of Generations spanning 23 years between 1971–1994 are constructed into a subsample consisting of 3,210 grandchild person-intervals. The model of role transition across the life course suggests a negative relationship between adult role acquisition and intergenerational solidarity. However, the data are not consistent with the role transition hypothesis. Rather, the effects of adult role transition are dynamic. In other words, role acquisition did not necessarily lead to declines in family cohesion; nor did role loss always result in greater family solidarity. The findings indicate that overall, adult role transitions are stronger predictors of grandchildrens' solidarity with grandfathers, than with grandmothers.     

Autonomy and Conformity in Cooley's Self-Theory: The Looking-Glass Self and Beyond

The totality of Cooley's contribution to self-theory, as reported in most sociology texts and much of the contemporary self literature, is erroneously equated with his concept of the “looking-glass self”, in its passive, dependent, and chameleon form. In this paper, we highlight Cooley's own qualifications to the looking-glass self, which properly place this popular concept in the context of Cooley's broader and more assertive view of self-concept formation. These qualifications include Cooley's emphasis on selectivity and interpretation in the process of reflected appraisals, his writings on core values and the continuity of character, and his discussion of efficacious action and appropriative activity in the early formation of the self.     

PROBLEM SOLVING SELF-APPRAISAL AND COPING EFFORTS IN DISTRESSED AND NONDISTRESSED COUPLES*

The present study sought to investigate the relationship between problem solving self-appraisal (i.e., perceived confidence, personal control, approach-avoidance), specific coping efforts (negotiation, optimistic comparisons, advice seeking, emotional discharge, selective ignoring, and resignation) and marital distress. Seventy-five couples completed the Problem Solving Inventory, the Marital Coping Questionnaire, and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale. When compared to nondistressed spouses, distressed spouses showed less problem solving confidence, a tendency to avoid different problem solving activities, and poor strategies to control their behavior. In addition, three coping efforts-optimistic comparisons, negotiation, and resignation–differentiated distressed from nondistressed spouses. However, the results of multiple regression analysis suggest that specific coping efforts are more important than problem solving self–appraisal in predicting marital satisfaction. These findings are discussed in terms of the role of cognitive factors in marital dysfunction.     

Associations Between Family of Origin Climate,Relationship Self‐Regulation,and Marital Outcomes

Using dyadic data from 961 married couples from the Relationship Evaluation Questionnaire project, the current study explored the direct association between family of origin climate and marital outcomes and the indirect association via relationship self‐regulation (RSR). Results from the actor–partner interdependence model analysis indicated that family of origin climate was positively associated with marital stability directly and indirectly via the effects of RSR and marital satisfaction for both men and women. Results suggest that the experience one has in their family of origin is associated with their marital outcomes through their RSR. Actor–partner direct and indirect effects indicate that spouses' RSR may have important consequences for both partner's evaluation of the marriage. Implications for intervention and future research are discussed.     

Women's family power and gender preference in Minya,Egypt

Structural and ideational theories are adapted to explore the influence of women's resources and ideational exposures on their family power and gender preferences in Minya, Egypt. Data from a household survey of 2,226 married women aged 15–54 years show that residence with marital kin decreases women's family power. Women in endogamous marriages have greater family power than women in nonendogamous marriages but still tend to prefer sons. Educated women report weaker son preference and greater influence in decisions but still tend to prefer sons. The positive association of women's education, paid work, and urban residence with a variable measuring girl or equal preference and family power suggests that selected resources and ideational exposures may improve girls’ well‐being in Minya.     

Do Spousal Discrepancies in Marital Quality Assessments Affect Psychological Adjustment to Widowhood?

We use prospective couple‐level data from the Changing Lives of Older Couples to assess the extent to which spouses concur in their assessments of marital quality (N = 844) and whether discrepancies in spouses' marital assessments affect the bereaved spouse's psychological adjustment 6 months after loss (n = 105). Spouses' assessments of marital quality are correlated modestly (r = .45), with women offering less positive assessments. Bereaved persons who had rated their marriages more positively than their spouse at the preloss interview reported higher levels of anger 6 months postloss. We conclude that persons who offer more positive appraisals of their marriages than their spouse may view spousal loss as a particularly unjust event. We discuss implications for understanding late life marriage and spousal bereavement.     

Social Feedback and Self‐Appraisals: Current Status of the Mead‐Cooley Hypothesis

Mead and Cooley propose that feedback from significant others provides the basis for individuals' self‐appraisals. I review research regarding (a) associations between others' judgments and individuals' self‐appraisals; (b) when others express or withhold feedback; and (c) when individuals accept or reject feedback. Research shows that others' judgments and self‐appraisals are moderately associated, though self‐ratings correspond more to perceived than to actual views by others and influences are multidirectional. Others' expressions of feedback vary across situations, depending in part on closeness of relationships and the sender's emotions. Peoples' tendencies to accept or reject feedback also vary by closeness, emotional reactions, and feedback valence. I conclude by evaluating the current status of the Mead‐Cooley perspective.     

Infant-Mother Attachment in Separated and Married Families

Abstract

Two contrasting predictions about the effects of parental marital separation on infants' attachment to their mothers are considered. The “early adversity” hypothesis suggests that infants will be adversely affected by negative life events and thus will develop anxious attachments to their mothers. The “protective” hypothesis claims that infants are resistant to stressors because of their limited cognitive ability, and therefore will be no more likely to develop anxious attachments than other infants. Results from 76 mother-child pairs in the “strange situation” procedure (assessing infantmother attachment) supported the “protective” hypothesis in that there were no significant differences between infants in two marital status groups. The role of marital status versus unfavorable life events in affecting children's development was discussed.     

Partner Appraisal and Marital Satisfaction: The Role of Self‐Esteem and Depression

This study examined whether people are more maritally satisfied when the valence of their partner's view of them is congruent with the valence of their self‐view. In doing so, competing hypotheses derived from self‐verification theory and self‐esteem enhancement theory were examined. Married couples, recruited from the community and mental health facilities, completed measures of marital satisfaction, self‐esteem, depression, and rated their spouse on a wide array of personality traits, both depressionrelated and depressionneutral. Regardless of self‐esteem and depression level, and across trait categories, targets were more maritally satisfied when their partners viewed them positively and less satisfied when their partners viewed them negatively. Thus, findings were inconsistent with self‐verification theory and consistent with a self‐esteem enhancement model.     

Compatibility,Leisure, and Satisfaction in Marital Relationships

This study challenges the prevailing view that marital companionship promotes marital satisfaction. By following a cohort of married couples for over a decade and by incorporating several methodological improvements—such as refining the measurement of marital satisfaction, determining how much spouses enjoy doing the leisure activities they pursue together and apart, and using diary data to portray marital leisure patterns—we found that the association between companionship and satisfaction is less robust than previously believed, and that it depends on how often spouses pursue activities that reflect their own and their partner's leisure preferences. Over time, involvement in leisure liked by husbands but disliked by wives, whether as a couple or by husbands alone, is both a cause and a consequence of wives' dissatisfaction.     

Gender Differences in College Students' Attitudes Towards Divorce and Their Willingness to Marry

This study compared the attitudes about divorce between young adults (college students) who had experienced parental divorce in their chilhood and those from intact homes. While there were no overall group differences, a significant two-way interaction was found for parents' marital status and sex of their respondent. In the intact group, females had a slightly more positive attitude, but in the divorced group, males were considerably more positive in their attitudes towards divorce. The only relationship between the two groups that was near significance in terms of their readiness to marry was the divorced group's more favorable attitude towards pre-marital cohabitation. These young adults were also significantly more actively dating than the intact group. Intergenerational marital instability was also greater for college students who experienced parental divorce.     

Marital Conflict,Ineffective Parenting,and Children's and Adolescents' Maladjustment

Data from the 1988 National Survey on Families and Households were analyzed to examine the associations among marital conflict, ineffective parenting, and children's and adolescents' maladjustment. Parents' use of harsh discipline and low parental involvement helped explain the connection between marital conflict and children's maladjustment in children aged 2 through 11. Parent‐child conflict was measured only in families with a target teenager and also was a significant mediator. Although ineffective parenting explained part of the association between marital conflict and children's maladjustment, independent effects of marital conflict remained in families with target children aged 2 through 11 (but not for families with a teenager). With a few exceptions, this pattern of findings was consistent for mothers' and fathers' reports, for daughters and sons, for families with various ethnic backgrounds, and for families living in and out of poverty.     

From Bad to Worse? Pornography Consumption,Spousal Religiosity,Gender, and Marital Quality

Pornography consumption is consistently associated with lower marital quality. Scholars have theorized that embeddedness within a religious community may exacerbate the negative association between pornography use and marital quality because of greater social or psychic costs to porn viewing. As a test and extension of this theory, I examine how being married to a religiously devout spouse potentially moderates the link between respondents' reported pornography consumption and their marital satisfaction. Data are taken from the 2006 Portraits of American Life Study. In the main effects, porn consumption is negatively related to marital satisfaction, while spousal religiosity is positively related to marital satisfaction. Interaction effects reveal, however, that spousal religiosity intensifies the negative effect of porn viewing on marital satisfaction. These effects are robust whether marital satisfaction is operationalized as a scale or with individual measures and whether spousal religiosity is measured with respondents' evaluations their spouses' religiosity or spouses' self‐reported religiosity measures. The effects are also similar for both husbands and wives. I argue that for married Americans, having a religiously committed spouse increases the social and psychic costs of porn consumption such that marital satisfaction decreases more drastically as a result.     

Gender Role Orientation of Divorced Women as Related to Body Satisfaction and Interest in Work Clothing

Abstract

This study examined whether divorced women's gender role orientation is related to interest in work clothing and satisfaction with physical appearance. Extremely non-traditional divorced women showed greater concerns about modesty and less interest in looking sexually attractive in their work dress. Divorced women's marital experience was found to be related to body satisfaction and interest in work clothing. The relationships among marital experience, body satisfaction, and interest in work clothing deserve further research to better understand the impact of divorce on one's perception of the self and appearance management behavior. Suggestions are made for practitioner application of the findings.     

The role of appraisal distortion, contempt, and morality in couple conflict: a grounded theory

A common goal of couples' therapy is to help individuals modify their view of each other and the relationship. Distorted views and appraisals contribute to conflict, and these can be manifest by use of rationalization or denial. This study explored appraisal distortion as an evaluative and moral process that occurs during partner conflict, particularly when it becomes contemptuous and aggressive. Using a philosophical base that is grounded in the ethical relationship, a model of appraisal distortion and couple conflict was created using constructivist grounded theory methods. The theoretical concepts derived from the data show relationships between one's relational stance, appraisal distortion, and verbal and physical aggression. This model implies that helping individuals take responsibility for appraisals is important in treating conflict.