The power of a cohesive subgroup within a voting body

We examine the power of a subgroup within a voting body as a function of its size and cohesiveness. The measure of cohesiveness is the probability that an arbitrary member of the subgroup will vote the same way as the leader of the subgroup. All voters are assumed to vote independently, and those not in the subgroup vote for or against with probability 1/2 in each case. The power of the subgroup is the probability that its vote differential exceeds the vote differential of the members of the body not in the subgroup. Tradeoffs between relative subgroup size and its follow-the-leader probability are considered.     

A mixed membership model-based measure for subgroup integration in social networks

Social networks analysis often involves quantifying subgroup structure in which tie density is greater among nodes in the same subgroup than between subgroups. One such measure, subgroup insularity or segregation, is the extent that subgroups are separate from each other. We introduce a new measure, γ, which is a parameter from the mixed membership stochastic blockmodel (MMSBM; Airoldi et al., 2008), and differs from many existing measures in that γ does not depend on node membership. We compare this measure to several well-known measures and use simulation studies and real data analysis to provide insight into how this measure can be used in practice.     

Estimating the effects of network covariates on subgroup insularity with a hierarchical mixed membership stochastic blockmodel

Social networks describe the relationships and interactions among a group of individuals. In many peer relationships, individuals tend to associate more often with some members than others, forming subgroups or clusters. Subgroup structure varies across networks; subgroups may be insular, appearing distinct and isolated from one another, or subgroups may be so integrated that subgroup structure is not visually apparent, and there are numerous ways of quantifying these types of structures. We propose a new model that relates the amount of subgroup integration to network attributes, building on the mixed membership stochastic blockmodel (Airoldi et al., 2008) and subsequent work by Sweet and Zheng (2017) and Sweet et al. (2014). We explore some of the operating characteristics of this model with simulated data and apply this model to determine the relationship between teachers’ instructional practices and their classrooms’ peer network subgroup structure.     

Relationship Satisfaction Trajectories Across the Transition to Parenthood Among Low‐Risk Parents

Numerous studies have established that new parents, on average, experience declines in relationship satisfaction, yet many sources suggest not all parents experience the transition to parenthood in the same way. The authors argue that new parents experience changes in relationship satisfaction in heterogeneous patterns, with only subgroups demonstrating steep declines. Furthermore, on the basis of the Vulnerability‐Stress‐Adaptation model, they examined actor and partner prenatal risk factors for experiencing different patterns of change. Among a sample of 206 new parents, they found the majority of mothers (79.4%) and about half of fathers (51.0%) experienced only moderate amounts of change, whereas smaller subgroups demonstrated steep declines. Results from analyses of the predictors of subgroup membership supported interdependence theory, because it was almost exclusively partner risk factors that predicted subgroup membership. Specifically, paternal positive support and anxiety predicted maternal subgroup membership and paternal positive support, maternal self‐esteem, and maternal daily stress predicted paternal subgroup membership.     

A new method for finding hierarchical subgroups from networks

We present a new method for decomposing a social network into an optimal number of hierarchical subgroups. With a perfect hierarchical subgroup defined as one in which every member is automorphically equivalent to each other, the method uses the REGGE algorithm to measure the similarities among nodes and applies the k-means method to group the nodes that have congruent profiles of dissimilarities with other nodes into various numbers of hierarchical subgroups. The best number of subgroups is determined by minimizing the intra-cluster variance of dissimilarity subject to the constraint that the improvement in going to more subgroups is better than a network whose n nodes are maximally dispersed in the n-dimensional space would achieve. We also describe a decomposability metric that assesses the deviation of a real network from the ideal one that contains only perfect hierarchical subgroups. Four well known network data sets are used to demonstrate the method and metric. These demonstrations indicate the utility of our approach and suggest how it can be used in a complementary way to Generalized Blockmodeling for hierarchical decomposition.     

Social choice with independent subgroup utility scales

In this article, the kinds of utility comparisons that can be made may differ in distinct population subgroups. Within each subgroup, utility is either ordinally or cardinally measurable. Levels and differences of utility may or may not be interpersonally comparable within a subgroup. No utility comparisons are possible between subgroups. Given these informational assumptions, it is shown that any continuous social welfare ordering that satisfies the weak Pareto principle only depends on the utilities of one of the subgroups. The class of social welfare orderings consistent with these assumptions is determined by the scale type of the dictatorial subgroup. Received: 25 May 1999/Accepted: 4 November 1999     

“Region” and ‘subgroup”: Organizing concepts in social network analysis

This paper provides a conceptual framework within which one can discuss the identification and comparison of subsets of actors and relations in social networks. Consider the adjacency matrix of a social network: Let a region be any subset of elements in the matrix and a subgroup be any subset of units (rows and corresponding columns). Then, a subgroup defines four regions: all possible relations among subgroup members, all possible relations between subgroup members and nonmembers (two regions), and all possible relations among nonmembers. This paper uses the properties of regions formed by subgroups to: (1) construct consistent and general definitions of degree and density in mathematical graphs; (2) discuss the relationship between subgroups produced by relational analyses and those produced by positional analyses; (3) show how to use region and subgroup to analyze egocentric networks; and (4) indicate directions for the further development of an analytical framework based on region and subgroup.     

Individual and contextual risks of death among race and ethnic groups in the United States

An emerging area of social science research focuses on individual-level and contextual-level determinants of black-white adult mortality differentials in the United States. However, no research on adult mortality differentials has distinguished multiple Hispanic subgroups and explored the role of nativity at both the individual and contextual levels for small geographic areas. Using the 1986-1997 National Health Interview Survey-National Death Index linked file, we examine the effects of individual and contextual factors on black-white and multiple Hispanic subgroups (Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and "other" Hispanic) differentials in adult mortality. In addition, we use a new, innovative geographic area--the very small area--as our contextual unit of analysis. We find that excess mortality risks for all race-ethnic groups considered are associated with not only individual characteristics, but also neighborhood characteristics. In addition, percent foreign born in a neighborhood is protective of Hispanic subgroup mortality for Puerto Rican, Mexican American, and "other" Hispanic adults in the 45-64 age category. These findings indicate a need for future research to examine more throughly the pathways through which neighborhood factors affect multiple Hispanic subgroup mortality and the role of nativity as a protective factor for older adult Hispanic mortality.     

A Graph-theoretic perspective on centrality

The concept of centrality is often invoked in social network analysis, and diverse indices have been proposed to measure it. This paper develops a unified framework for the measurement of centrality. All measures of centrality assess a node's involvement in the walk structure of a network. Measures vary along four key dimensions: type of nodal involvement assessed, type of walk considered, property of walk assessed, and choice of summary measure. If we cross-classify measures by type of nodal involvement (radial versus medial) and property of walk assessed (volume versus length), we obtain a four-fold polychotomization with one cell empty which mirrors Freeman's 1979 categorization. At a more substantive level, measures of centrality summarize a node's involvement in or contribution to the cohesiveness of the network. Radial measures in particular are reductions of pair-wise proximities/cohesion to attributes of nodes or actors. The usefulness and interpretability of radial measures depend on the fit of the cohesion matrix to the one-dimensional model. In network terms, a network that is fit by a one-dimensional model has a core-periphery structure in which all nodes revolve more or less closely around a single core. This in turn implies that the network does not contain distinct cohesive subgroups. Thus, centrality is shown to be intimately connected with the cohesive subgroup structure of a network.     

Cohesiveness and goals in agency networks: Explaining conflict and cooperation

This paper examines principal and agent networks. We focus on networks because business research has placed far greater emphasis on the agency problem at the individual level. Our interest is in exploring the agency relationship at the group or network level. There are many variables at the group or network level which are absent when analyzing agency relationships at the individual level. Traditional theories of finance and economics do not adequately address or explain a host of behaviors that are inherent in human interactions that constitute organizational life. We include a sociological or behavioral approach in understanding this complex relationship. Using cohesiveness and shared goals as antecedents, we develop a theoretical model that predicts a range of relationship outcomes between principals and agents, as well as their impact on organizational goals. We explain that a range of relationships – including conflict, domination, exploitation, collaboration, and cooperation – is possible when networks of principals and agents interact.We argue that the social context is a key determinant of the relationship between actors in a network, and it has an important role in impacting cohesiveness and goal mutuality. The degree of cohesiveness within and between networks, and the extent to which goals are shared or are in conflict are the principal predictor variables we examine. We posit that cohesiveness and shared goals are necessary and sufficient conditions for agency problems between networks to be alleviated. Both necessary and sufficient conditions need to be met in order to overcome the problems of agency. The relationships we examine through the model include cooperation, collaboration, domination, opportunism, exploitation, and conflict. We present a number of propositions that theorize on the nature of the agency relationship and their impact on organizational goals. Implications for research and practice are also discussed.     

Who benefits from labor market institutions? Evidence from surveys of life satisfaction

This paper investigates the welfare effects of labor market institutions, placing an emphasis on how the institutions’ effects are differentiated by socio-demographic subgroups. We study how life satisfaction is affected by employment protection and the level and duration of unemployment benefit payments. Using data for almost 370,000 individuals in ten European countries, 1975-2002, we find that more employment protection and a higher benefit replacement rate increase the life satisfaction of the average citizen. At the subgroup level, different segments of the population are affected differently by the two categories of labor market institutions. While employment protection is valued especially by employed persons of intermediate age, it is less beneficial for women/housewives and for older persons. More generous unemployment insurance is valued especially by these latter subgroups and by the unemployed.     

Group Dynamics in Development of the Poor: Experience from BRAC

The groups deliberately formed by nongovernmental organizations to organize the poor for their development are often subgrouped for better performance. In this connection, the study investigates the extent subgroups contribute to group performance, the mechanisms that lead to the contribution of subgroups to group performance, and changes in the contribution of subgroups to the performance of a group. Altogether 239 Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee groups, i.e., village organizations (VOs), with and without subgroups were investigated. The VOs with subgroups performed better than those without subgroups. The performance of the VOs with subgroups, however, declined over time. One of the reasons why effectiveness of VOs with subgroups declined was the belief that pursuing subgroup responsibilities would not bring any personal gain for members.     

Luce Irigaray,Sexual Difference and Theorizing Leaders and Leadership

In the study of leaders and leadership men and women are presumed to be interchangeable. We read as if leaders have no sex, and we view the still prevailing use of the pronoun ‘he’ as an anachronism. However, it is quite apparent that the ‘who’ of the leader remains male no matter how carefully egalitarian the use of the pronouns. In our formulation of who the leader is, and what leadership is about, the same has triumphed over the different, the sexually indifferent or the One over the sexually different, to use the terms of Luce Irigaray. If the heroine rather than only the hero is to be represented, a new symbolic structure must be created if new ways of thinking about the leader and of leadership are to be thought which create a space for women other than as imitation men or excavated women. This article explores the Irigarayan notion of the absent, unrepresented she, the ‘not-yet’ of woman which lies both in the subversion of the metaphysical order and the invention of not ‘neither one nor two’, and the impact of this theorizing would have on loosening the bonds of domination and subordination which confine the leader and leadership theory.     

Rethinking integration and identity: Chinese migrants in the Republic of Ireland

Using historical narratives and a qualitative research approach, this paper analyses the social, cultural and cognitive causes of differentiation and stratification among Chinese migrants in the Republic of Ireland. It discusses individuals’ diversified capabilities, attitudes and actual levels of integration, as well as their disparate patterns of self-identification. In the research area of Chinese migrants in Ireland, in-group diversity and its implications is still a novel research topic. With this introductory work, the authors seek to draw more attention to this particular group, especially to the need for studies of encounters between subgroups and longitudinal investigations. The paper points out that subgroups of Chinese migrants in Ireland are divided according to social classification and self-categorisation, which have distinct significances for subgroup members’ integration and identity.     

Using cluster analysis in program evaluation

The conventional way to measure program impacts is to compute the average treatment effect; that is, the difference between a treatment group that received some intervention and a control group that did not. Recently, scholars have recognized that looking only at the average treatment effect may obscure impacts that accrue to subgroups. In an effort to inform subgroup analysis research, this article explains the challenge of treatment group heterogeneity. It then proposes using cluster analysis to identify otherwise difficult-to-identify subgroups within evaluation data. The approach maintains the integrity of the experimental evaluation design, thereby producing unbiased estimates of program impacts by subgroup. This method is applied to data from the evaluation of New York State's Child Assistance Program, a reform that intended to increase work and earnings among welfare recipients. The article interprets the substantive findings and then addresses the advantages and disadvantages of the proposed method.     

A solution to the constant frame of reference problem

Let some individuals selected from a population form a subgroup. Let each individual name those individuals whom he considers to be the best members of his subgroup. Based on the number of times an individual was so named, we wish to find the probability that the individual is the best. second best, third best, etc., member of the population. This paper presents a method for the calculation of such probabilities. In so doing, it also offers a solution to the constant frame of reference problem in which individuals from different subgroups must be compared.     

A sociometric status index without subgroup membership bias

Sociometric status is a widely used indicator to assess what is called popularity of a person within a group. The purpose of this paper is to show that status as defined by known indices may be biased whenever there are subgroups unequal in size within the total group and within-group choices are more probable than between-group choices. The problem of subgroup membership bias may be solved, however, by a simple linear transformation.     

Relational Gender Compensation of the Imbalanced Self

In this article, I attempt to assess the functions of gender—prescribed by culture—in the acquisition/maintenance of a feeling of cohesiveness of self as well as other conditions that are, on the contrary, at the root of the imbalance of this cohesiveness. I propose to explore the role of gender dimensions in the dialectics between cohesiveness and loss of cohesiveness and which gender identity-related conditions contribute to tip the balance in one or another direction.     

Exploring the Socioeconomic and Immigration Health Contexts of Asian Americans

Despite an overall picture of good health for Asian Americans in the aggregate, growing evidence shows that specific subgroups—particularly those with high proportions of immigrants—have diverse patterns relative to socioeconomic position and health. Using data from the largest U.S. state health survey, this study explores the contributions of socioeconomic and immigration factors to health status among Asian American subgroups. Results indicate that level of education, income, and English language ability were significant predictors of health status for the Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese subgroups. Varying patterns in the results by subgroup are discussed in the context of immigration policy.     

Community Support for a Gold Cyanide Process Mine: Resident and Leader Differences in Rural Montana*

Abstract Previous studies have established that community residents and leaders differ in their support for hazardous waste facility siting in rural areas (Spies et al. 1998). We examine whether these same differences exist in rural communities that face other high‐risk development decisions by analyzing resident and leader support for a proposed gold cyanide process (GCP) mine in Montana. Compared to proposed hazardous waste facilities, a much stronger predictor of both resident and leader support in the GCP mine context is recreancy, or distrust in institutions and outside interveners. However, perceived economic benefits remain key differences between residents and leaders in both the GCP mine and hazardous waste facility cases.