Hassles,hardiness and absenteeism: Results of a 3-year longitudinal study

Abstract

In this 3-year longitudinal study of 229 full-time employees, the authors investigated the association between hassles, two measures of personality hardiness, and absenteeism verified from medical personnel records and self-reported hospitalization owing to injury and illness. Using stepwise multiple regression analysis, hassles, but neither of the hardiness measures, significantly predicted absenteeism when controlling for psychological well-being and relevent demographic variables over the 3-year period. The alternative measure of hardiness, but not any of the original Kobasa personality hardiness scales, predicted self-reported hospitalization for injury and illness. Little evidence for the predicitve validity of the Kobasa personality hardiness components, or composite hardiness score, existed for either absenteeism or self-reported hospitalization in this study. These findings support the concept that the current conceptualization, measurement and use of the original Kobasa hardiness scales should be re-evaluated.     

Hardiness and the relationship between stressors and outcomes

Using a sample of 468 participants, from two organizations, this study examined direct and moderating relationships between hardiness (a composite of challenge, control, and commitment), life and work stressors, and a variety of health-related outcomes. The results indicated that hardiness did not moderate the relationship between stressors and outcomes as reported by others (e.g. Kobasa 1982a). However, hardiness did have significant direct effects on emotional and psychological factors thought to be related to personal well-being and work performance. Hardy individuals reported higher levels of job satisfaction and fewer tensions at work dun did the less hardy. In general, hardy individuals experienced a higher quality of life and a more positive affect while being more energized and less negative about life. Hardy individuals also reported fewer somatic complaints and tended to be less depressed and anxious than individuals low in hardiness. In addition, hardiness was negatively related to all four measures of life and work stress implying that hardiness may not be independent of life demands.     

Lifestyle habits,substance use and predictors of job burnout in professional working women

Abstract

This study explores differences in self-reported lifestyle habits, substance use (alcohol, drugs and smoking) and predictors of job burnout in a sample of 879 professional working women employed in dental health ofices in a cross-sectional design. Job burnout was measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and self-reported substance use and lifestyle habits were assessed using the Stress Assessment Profile. Self-reported drinking, smolung and drug use were only modestly correlated with each other in this sample. Employed women with higher levels of drinking reported significantly lower quality overall lifestyle practices, eating/nunition habits, and more frequent use of avoidant coping strategies in the face of work and life hassles compared to non-drinkers. Women who smoked also reported significantly lower overall lifestyle practices and eating/nutrition habits. Those who reported using drugs for recreational purposes reported significantly greater hassles, poorer lifestyle habits, a less hardy outlook on life, and more frequent use of dysfunctional coping strategies. Although women who reported using drugs experienced significantly higher interpersonal burnout (depersonalization) compared to non-drug users, in general, self-reported substance use was not significantly related to job burnout. After controlling for age and psychological distress, perceived stress, type A behaviour, cognitive hardiness and lifestyle habits significantly contributed to predictions of job burnout in multiple regression analyses. Despite methodological limitations, the prevalence of substance use found in this study supports previous research findings. Professional working women who practise poor lifestyle and health habits appear to be at risk of experiencing job burnout.     

A longitudinal study of burnout: the relative importance of dispositions and experiences

This study investigated the relative contribution of personality vs. environmental factors to the genesis of the burnout syndrome. A sample of 221 nursing students in Hamburg, Germany, were administered a battery of personality measures prior to any training. They were later asked to rate various stressors encountered during their practical training on hospital wards and also in nursing school, general aspects of ward climate, the frequency of private life events, and their own well-being on standard measures of burnout. Data were collected at seven time points over a period of 3 years, including the initial assessment (T1-T7). Only complete data sets (N = 123) were used for the analyses. Burnout scores from T2 to T7 were predicted, on the one hand, by the 36 'dispositional' scales of the initial battery and, on the other hand, by a set of 18 'experience-oriented' scales from the later questionnaire's concurrent administration. Scales reflecting well-being were predicted better by experiences than by dispositions. With scales reflecting attitudes towards oneself and patients, respectively, it was the other way around. Thus, both dispositional and experiential views of burnout receive some support here. Intraindividual change in burnout scores could not be linked to dispositional or experiential variables.     

Social support at work and its relationship to absenteeism

In this study, the impact of psychosocial work characteristics on illness and work absenteeism has been examined. The study group consisted of 133 civil servants (33 men and 100 women) with a mean age of 43 years (range 21-65 years). Psychosocial work characteristics, social support, quality of life, work absenteeism, psychosomatic and gastrointestinal symptoms were assessed by means of questionnaires. Five different work support or functions were identified by factor analysis: appraisal support, belonging support, instrumental support, emotional support and supportive atmosphere. The analysis showed that work absenteeism was associated with lower belonging support and a less supportive atmosphere. Furthermore, psychosomatic symptoms were associated with lack of support at work, measured as belonging support, instrumental support and supportive atmosphere. Gastrointestinal symptoms were associated with lack of belonging support and lack of social integration outside work. A bad general health status was associated with lack of insrumental support. The association between work absenteeism and social support at work was confirmed in multivariate analysis with control for confounding factors. In this analysis, high work strain and low social support were associated with a lower quality of life, which in turn was associated with increased absenteeism. Although there are well-known difficulties in drawing causal conclusions from cross-sectional studies, it seems reasonable to conclude that social support at work is an important factor to take into consideration when analysing illness and absenteeism from work.     

Personality factors predicting changes in shift work tolerance: A longitudinal study among nurses working rotating shifts

Abstract

The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between personality factors (hardiness, morningness, flexibility, and languidity) and longitudinal changes on different measures of shift work tolerance (fatigue, sleepiness, anxiety and depression) over one year among nurses working rotating shifts. A total of 642 female Norwegian nurses working in a rotating three-shift schedule participated in the study. The cohort was established by age-stratified selection among members of the Norwegian Nurses Association in 2008. Questionnaires were administered in 2008/2009 (T1) and in 2009/2010 (T2). The results showed that hardiness was negatively related to fatigue, anxiety and depression at T2 when controlling for the scores on these constructs at T1. Morningness was not related to any indicators of shift work tolerance at T2 when controlling for shift work tolerance at T1. Flexibility was negatively related to anxiety at T2 when controlling for anxiety at T1. Languidity was positively related to sleepiness and fatigue at T2 when controlling for sleepiness and fatigue at T1. The findings indicate that personality factors, especially hardiness, can predict changes related to shift work tolerance over a period of one year.     

Social support at work and its relationship to absenteeism

Abstract

In this study, the impact of psychosocial work characteristics on illness and work absenteeism has been examined. The study group consisted of 133 civil servants (33 men and 100 women) with a mean age of 43 years (range 21-65 years). Psychosocial work characteristics, social support, quality of life, work absenteeism, psychosomatic and gastrointestinal symptoms were assessed by means of questionnaires. Five different work support or functions were identified by factor analysis: appraisal support, belonging support, instrumental support, emotional support and supportive atmosphere. The analysis showed that work absenteeism was associated with lower belonging support and a less supportive atmosphere. Furthermore, psychosomatic symptoms were associated with lack of support at work, measured as belonging support, instrumental support and supportive atmosphere. Gastrointestinal symptoms were associated with lack of belonging support and lack of social integration outside work. A bad general health status was associated with lack of insrumental support. The association between work absenteeism and social support at work was confirmed in multivariate analysis with control for confounding factors. In this analysis, high work strain and low social support were associated with a lower quality of life, which in turn was associated with increased absenteeism. Although there are well-known difficulties in drawing causal conclusions from cross-sectional studies, it seems reasonable to conclude that social support at work is an important factor to take into consideration when analysing illness and absenteeism from work.     

The relationship between transformational leadership and follower sickness absence: the role of presenteeism

The impact of transformational leaders on employee health and well-being has received much attention. Less research has focused on the relationships between transformational leaders and followers’ sickness absenteeism. Transformational leaders promote a group climate that may lead to absenteeism, especially among vulnerable employees (those with high levels of presenteeism). In the present study we examined the relationships between presenteeism, group-level transformational leadership and sickness absence rates in a three-year longitudinal study of postal workers and their leaders in Denmark (N?=?155). Group-level transformational leadership in year 1 predicted sickness absenteeism in year 2, but not in year 3. In examining conditions under which transformational leadership may be linked to higher levels of sickness absenteeism, we found that presenteeism in year 1 moderated the link between transformational leadership in year 1 and sickness absenteeism in year 3, such that followers working in groups with a transformational leader and who were high in presenteeism reported higher levels of sickness absenteeism. Our results suggest a complex picture of the relationship between transformational leadership and sickness absenteeism; transformational leaders may promote self-sacrifice of vulnerable followers by leading them to go to work while ill, leading to increased risks of sickness absence in the long term.     

Does 'hardiness' predict adaptation to shiftwork?

This longitudinal study examined whether the dimensions of hardiness (commitment, control and challenge) predicted psychological symptoms and dissatisfaction with shiftwork, and whether or not the relationships identified were confounded with neuroticism and extraversion. Female nurses were studied during their first 15 months of shiftwork. Thirty-six nurses worked on a 2-shift (day and evening) schedule throughout and 66 transferred from the 2-shift schedule to a 3-shift (day, evening and night) schedule after 6 months. Hardiness, neuroticism, extraversion and symptoms were measured before the respondents began shiftwork (Stage 1). Symptoms and dissatisfaction were measured after 6 months (Stage 2) and 15 months (Stage 3). Multiple regressions indicated that the hardiness dimensions did not predict dissatisfaction at Stages 2 or 3, or symptoms at Stage 3. They also failed to buffer the effect of night-work on symptoms. However, commitment did predict symptoms at Stages 1 and 2 and challenge predicted symptoms at Stage 2. Although these effects were confounded with neuroticism, commitment showed weak evidence of independent prediction. In general, hardiness was a very poor predictor of shiftwork tolerance.     

Men and women who like continuous shiftwork are more ‘hardy’: But what does it mean?

Abstract

Continuous shiftworkers of both genders who like shiftwork and report fewer digestive problems have higher scores on hardiness than those who dislike shiftwork. Whether this is a causal, consequential or accidental relationship requires a longitudinal investigation. It is also not clear how far ‘hardiness’ is a personality measure, a behavioural style, a coping strategy, or a consequence of the stress of shiftwork.     

Psychosocial predictors of health status

This prospective study examined, in a sample of male and female adults, the relationship between specific psychosocial factors and health status. Measures of stress, health habits, social support, Type A behaviour, and coping style were collected for 203 professional employees in a large aerospace organization in 1988. One year later a follow-up questionnaire assessing self-reported physical illness and job burn-out was administered resulting in a final sample of 95 employees. When adjustments for age, sex, education, and initial psychological well-being were made, perceived stress, physical exercise, and an avoidant coping style significantly contributed to predictions of physical illness in multiple regression analyses. Employees who possessed less hardy appraisals of work/life and expressed greater Type A behaviour reported significantly more fatigue and exhaustion one year later. Type A individuals also reported being significantly less sensitive and caring towards others. Finally, individuals who perceived less stress and expressed more cognitive hardiness reported significantly greater work/life satisfaction. Overall, the data supported the view that psychosocial factors may be differentially associated with diverse physical and psychological health outcomes.     

Men and women who like continuous shiftwork are more 'hardy': But what does it mean?

Continuous shiftworkers of both genders who like shiftwork and report fewer digestive problems have higher scores on hardiness than those who dislike shiftwork. Whether this is a causal, consequential or accidental relationship requires a longitudinal investigation. It is also not clear how far 'hardiness' is a personality measure, a behavioural style, a coping strategy, or a consequence of the stress of shiftwork.     

Sickness presenteeism and sickness absence over time: A UK employee perspective

This paper examined the influence of sickness presenteeism (SP), defined here as going to work despite illness, and sickness absenteeism (SA) behaviour on employee psychological well-being, work performance and perceived organisational commitment in a sample of 552 UK workers. Self-report measures were administered on 2 occasions, separated by 1 year, to employees from 4 public sector and 2 private sector organisations. Structural equation modelling was used to evaluate simultaneous influences of SP and SA on outcomes over time. Results suggested that employees reporting SP reported lower work performance in comparison to those reporting no SP, when measured concurrently but not over time. Employees reporting any SP in the previous 3 months showed relatively reduced psychological well-being but there was no significant association over time. Six or more days SP was associated with a reduction in employee perceptions that their organisation was committed to them, concurrently and over time. There were no significant influences of SA on any outcome measure. Our results strengthen previous research and suggest that SP, but not SA, has implications for individual outcomes. The findings have implications for the way organisations manage their sickness absence systems.     

Person characteristics and the perception of organization climate

An issue in research on organization climate is the extent to which the climate reflects the personality of the organization members. The purpose of this study is to explore the overall relationship of person characteristics to climate and to explore ways in which person factors relate to specific climate dimensions. Previous research has used distal measures of person characteristics such as demographic variables or biographical measures. The present study uses proximal measures of person characteristics, 16PF scales, and the Embedded Figures Test. The finding, which results from the canonical correlation analysis and the multivariate regression analysis, is that person-climate relationships are of sufficient size that they deserve the attention of corporate culture theorists. A significant relationship was found between cognitive style and the climate dimension of administrative efficiency, job challenge, management, concern with employee involvement, open-mindedness, egalitarianism, altruism. A significant relationship was found between the aggregated scales of the 16PF and the aggregated climate scales. The process by which climate perceptions are formed represents the organization members' attempt to structure social reality to define their place within it and to guide their search for meaning and gratification. Personality and cognitive style have been shown to be important determinants of the perceptions employees have of their work organization.     

Chinese version of the OSI: A validation study

This article examines the construct validity of the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) in its Chinese version as well as its criterion-oriented validity against self-reported data on absenteeism and accidents, using a final sample of 1054 workers in the Chinese manufacturing and power industries. The divergent and convergent validities of five of the OSI scales—Job satisfaction, Physical ill-health, Mental ill-health, Type A behaviour and Control—were examined by a multimethod-multitrait matrix technique. Results indicated that the Chinese OSI had fairly good validity in relation to other well-established measures as well as relevant organizational behaviours.     

Einflussfaktoren auf Fehlzeiten und Maßnahmen dagegen

Determining factors of absenteeism and strategies against it Due to its increasing costs, institiutional absenteeism has become a central problem of successfull management. Most researchers differentiate between illness related and motivation related absenteeism. This distinction is not very useful, because it does not reflect the multifactorial causes of absenteeism. Intra-individual factors, societal context, company culture, working conditions, work-related tasks, and the behaviour of superiors play a critical role in determining the frequency and duration of sick leaves. A set of strategies is described in order to develop more motivating working conditions and a staff oriented management style. A project comprising a set of individual and collective strategies to reduce absenteeism is delineated.     

Personality and coping as moderators of work stress processes: Models, methods and measures

This article reviews the role of individual differences in work stress processes, with particular reference to personality and coping as moderator variables. Vulnerability/resilience and person-environment fit (congruence) models of moderator effects are contrasted and relevant issues of methodology and analysis are outlined. Personality traits (locus of control, hardiness, Type A, optimism, and neuroticism) that act as moderators of stress/strain relations are reviewed; the characteristics and limitations of available measures are described. Associations between personality and coping, inventories for the assessment of coping, and the dimensions of coping behaviour, are then considered. The implications of structural and transactional models of stress for coping assessment are discussed with reference to dispositional versus situational approaches and other psychometric issues. The need for research into coping flexibility and consistency is emphasized. No attempt is made to provide a comprehensive account of empirical research into individual difference moderator effects, but relevant review articles are cited, together with some recent studies. Finally, several areas which would merit further attention (including specificity of moderator effects, conjunctive and disjunctive patterns, and moderation of relations between objective and perceived stressors) are identified.     

A renewed perspective on the measurement of cross-cultural competence: An approach through personality traits and cross-cultural knowledge

The concept of cross-cultural competence (CCC) has generated considerable interest in the area of international business, but research still lacks solid measurement tools for this multidimensional construct. CCC is frequently operationalized with its components such as personality traits, but to what extent are those really linked to another dimension of CCC and therefore indicative of cross-cultural knowledge? This study combines measurement tools for two components of CCC: personality trait scales and critical incident technique. The tools are validated on a multinational sample of a working population. A structural model shows that most of the personality traits generally presented as predictive of CCC, do not significantly determine cross-cultural knowledge.     

Personality and coping as moderators of work stress processes: Models,methods and measures

Abstract

This article reviews the role of individual differences in work stress processes, with particular reference to personality and coping as moderator variables. Vulnerability/resilience and person-environment fit (congruence) models of moderator effects are contrasted and relevant issues of methodology and analysis are outlined. Personality traits (locus of control, hardiness, Type A, optimism, and neuroticism) that act as moderators of stress/strain relations are reviewed; the characteristics and limitations of available measures are described. Associations between personality and coping, inventories for the assessment of coping, and the dimensions of coping behaviour, are then considered. The implications of structural and transactional models of stress for coping assessment are discussed with reference to dispositional versus situational approaches and other psychometric issues. The need for research into coping flexibility and consistency is emphasized. No attempt is made to provide a comprehensive account of empirical research into individual difference moderator effects, but relevant review articles are cited, together with some recent studies. Finally, several areas which would merit further attention (including specificity of moderator effects, conjunctive and disjunctive patterns, and moderation of relations between objective and perceived stressors) are identified.     

Measurement of negative affectivity: A comparison of self-reports and observer ratings

Both self-report and non-self-report measures (co-worker ratings) of negative affectivity (NA) were obtained. Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that these two measures of NA would be moderately correlated. It was also expected that self-report measure of NA would be more strongly correlated with self-reported stressors and strains than would the co-worker measure. Finally, it was predicted that statistically controlling for self-reported NA would attenuate stressor-strain correlations more than would controlling for co-worker ratings of NA. A sample of 121 full-time employees who were pursuing graduate degrees completed self-report measures of stressors, strains, and negative affectivity. These individuals also asked two co-workers to assess their level of negative affectivity. Results supported all three hypotheses. Specifically, there was modest convergence between self-reported and co-worker NA. In addition, self-reported NA was more strongly correlated with self-reported stressors and strains than was the co-worker NA measure. Finally, statistically controlling for self-reported NA attenuated stressor-strain correlations much more than controlling for co-worker NA. These results suggest that observer ratings may be of some use in future NA research. Other implications of these findings are discussed.