Some measures of closeness to unanimity and their implications

This note demonstrates how certain collective decision methods ensure the selection of alternatives which are the closest to win unanimously. By using four different functions for measuring the distance between preference profiles, we obtain the equivalence between the closeness to unanimity procedure (CUP) and the Borda method, the plurality rule, the probabilistic Borda rule and the L-procedure respectively.     

Measures of Powerlessness in Simple Games

Consider a simple game with n players. Let ψ_i be the Shapley–Shubik power index for player i. Then 1-ψ_i measures his powerlessness. We break down this powerlessness into two components – a `quixote index' Q <sub>i</sub> (which measures how much of a `quixote' i is), and a `follower index' F <sub>i</sub> (which measures how much of a `follower' he is). Formulae, properties, and axiomatizations for Q and F are given. Examples are also supplied. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Perceptron versus automaton in the finitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma

We study the finitely repeated prisoner’s dilemma in which the players are restricted to choosing strategies which are implementable by a machine with a bound on its complexity. One player has to use a finite automaton while the other player has to use a finite perceptron. Some examples illustrate that the sets of strategies which are induced by these two types of machines are different and not ordered by set inclusion. Repeated game payoffs are evaluated according to the limit of means. The main result establishes that a cooperation at almost all stages of the game is an equilibrium outcome if the complexity of the machines the players may use is limited enough and if the length T of the repeated game is sufficiently large. This result persists when more than T states are allowed in the player’s automaton. We further consider a variant of the model in which the two players are restricted to choosing strategies which are implementable by perceptrons and prove that the players can cooperate at most of the stages provided that the complexity of their perceptrons is sufficiently reduced.     

Axiomatization of a Preference for Most Probable Winner

In binary choice between discrete outcome lotteries, an individual may prefer lottery L₁ to lottery L₂ when the probability that L₁ delivers a better outcome than L₂ is higher than the probability that L₂ delivers a better outcome than L₁. Such a preference can be rationalized by three standard axioms (solvability, convexity and symmetry) and one less standard axiom (a fanning-in). A preference for the most probable winner can be represented by a skew-symmetric bilinear utility function. Such a utility function has the structure of a regret theory when lottery outcomes are perceived as ordinal and the assumption of regret aversion is replaced with a preference for a win. The empirical evidence supporting the proposed system of axioms is discussed.     

Nozick on Sen: A reply to Perelli-Minetti

Perelli-Minetti argues that Nozick's principle of justice in transfer requires, inter alia, Sen's liberalism condition (L) and is subject to Sen's paradox. It is shown here that a weaker liberalism condition L _W is sufficient for justice in transfer and consistent with Sen's other conditions on the social decision function. The conjunction of conditions L _W, I _P, and N is equivalent to L. It is implausible and perhaps illogical that a society applying Nozick's entitlement theory will impose both I _P and N, and if it does not, then Sen's paradox does not affect Nozick's theory of justice in transfer.     

On the Cycle-Transitivity of the Dice Model

We introduce the notion of a dice model as a framework for describing a class of probabilistic relations. We investigate the transitivity of the probabilistic relation generated by a dice model and prove that it is a special type of cycle-transitivity that is situated between moderate stochastic transitivity or product-transitivity on the one side, and ukasiewicz-transitivity on the other side. Finally, it is shown that any probabilistic relation with rational elements on a three-dimensional space of alternatives which possesses this particular type of cycle-transitivity, can be represented by a dice model. The same does not hold in higher dimensions.     

Binary Relations: Finite Characterizations and Computational Complexity

A characterization of a property of binary relations is of finite type if it is stated in terms of ordered T-tuples of alternatives for some positive integer T. The concept was introduced informally by Knoblauch (2005). We give a clear, complete definition below. We prove that a characterization of finite type can be used to determine in polynomial time whether a binary relation over a finite set has the property characterized. We also prove a simple but useful nonexistence theorem and apply it to three examples.      

Children’s reasoning about unequal gender‐based distributions

Children ages 7 (N = 56, M_age = 7.24, SD = 0.83), 9 (N = 55, M_age = 9.25, SD = 0.52), and 11 (N = 52, M_age = 11.60, SD = 0.79), and emerging adults (N = 50, M_age = 20.76, SD = 0.87) judged distributions of different items to boys and girls, when the items distributed varied by gender valence (related or unrelated to gender norms) and equivalency (equivalent or unequal). Distributions were judged to be acceptable most when the items were consistent with gender norms, especially for participants at ages 7 and 9, indicating that in middle childhood, children judge unequal treatment as fair when it is related to gender norms. Items were judged to be more likable when they were gendered, and likability judgments predicted more positive evaluations of the distributions, even when controlling for age.     

Science resource inequalities viewed as less wrong when girls are disadvantaged

In response to some resource inequalities, children give priority to moral concerns. Yet, in others, children show ingroup preferences in their evaluations and resource allocations. The present study built upon this knowledge by investigating children's and young adults’ (N = 144; 5–6-year-olds, M_age = 5.83, SD_age = .97; 9–11-year-olds, M_age = 10.74, SD_age = .68; and young adults, M_age = 19.92, SD_age = 1.10) evaluations and allocation decisions in a science inequality context. Participants viewed vignettes in which male and female groups received unequal amounts of science supplies, then evaluated the acceptability of the resource inequalities, allocated new boxes of science supplies between the groups, and provided justifications for their choices. Results revealed both children and young adults evaluated inequalities of science resources less negatively when girls were disadvantaged than when boys were disadvantaged. Further, 5- to 6-year-old participants and male participants rectified science resource inequalities to a greater extent when the inequality disadvantaged boys compared to when it disadvantaged girls. Generally, participants who used moral reasoning to justify their responses negatively evaluated and rectified the resource inequalities, whereas participants who used group-focused reasoning positively evaluated and perpetuated the inequalities, though some age and participant gender findings emerged. Together, these findings reveal subtle gender biases that may contribute to perpetuating gender-based science inequalities both in childhood and adulthood.     

Maternal enhancing responses to adolescents’ positive affect: Associations with adolescents’ positive affect regulation and depression

Mounting evidence indicates that deficits in positive affect (PA) regulation are implicated in youth depression. Although parental responses to youths’ PA expressions have been linked to youth regulation of negative affect, no study has directly examined whether parental responses are linked with youth PA regulation strategies. The present study utilized a novel observational measure to test whether maternal active‐constructive responses to youths’ PA were uniquely associated with youth effective PA regulation strategies and, subsequently, depressive symptoms. Ninety‐two adolescents between the ages of 11 and 18 (M_age = 14.22, Girls = 62%) and their primary female caregivers (M_age = 41.40, 88% biological mothers) completed a series of questionnaires and engaged in a Plan a Day Trip interaction task. Results revealed that observed maternal active‐constructive responses to adolescents’ PA were uniquely associated with adolescents’ effective PA regulation strategies which, in turn, were related to lower depressive symptoms. These findings underscore the importance of parental responses to PA when sharing positive experiences for specifically targeting adolescents’ responses that generate and sustain PA.     

Development and Psychometric Properties of the Classroom Peer Context Questionnaire

Children's view on the peer context in their classroom may differ from that of other informants, but no measure systematically examines children's own view. Therefore, we developed the Classroom Peer Context Questionnaire (CPCQ) and evaluated its reliability, validity, and stability in two studies. In Study 1, 464 children (M_age = 10.8 years, 53.2% girls) from 18 Grade 5 classrooms participated in 2 waves of data collection. In Study 2, 1538 children (M_age = 10.6 years, 47.2% girls) from 59 Grade 5 classrooms participated in 3 waves of data collection. Exploratory factor analyses in Study 1 revealed 5 dimensions labeled comfort, cooperation, conflict, cohesion, and isolation. Confirmatory factor analyses in Study 2 supported these 5 dimensions. Study 2 also demonstrated good reliability, validity, and stability for each dimension. Researchers and professionals in schools may use the CPCQ to obtain reliable and quick information on how children perceive the peer context in their classroom.     

Similarity between Early and Middle Adolescent Close Friends’ Beliefs about Personal Jurisdiction

Similarity in close friends’ beliefs about personal jurisdiction was examined using questionnaires and interviews with 162 early (M_age = 11.82) and middle (M_age = 15.68) adolescents who were matched with reciprocally nominated close friends. Using the framework of social domain theory, beliefs about personal jurisdiction were assessed for personal, social conventional, prudential, and multifaceted issues. As hypothesized, close friends were more similar than non‐friends in their ratings of legitimate parental authority and the degree of harm and consequences to others for prudential and multifaceted issues. Also as expected, friends were similar in their justifications for the legitimacy of parental authority over multifaceted issues. Similarity was moderated by age, direct discussion, and friendship duration; effects varied according to the domain of the issue. Results were discussed in terms of peers’ influence on adolescents’ push for increased autonomy.     

A prospective study of adolescent mothers’ social competence,children's effortful control and compliance and children's subsequent developmental outcomes

Previous work has established that caregiver and child temperamental characteristics are associated with child compliance. Given the critical role that parents play in this process, and that children of teen mothers are at risk for poorer developmental outcomes, it is important to understand the development of compliance in the context of at‐risk parenting such as adolescent motherhood. The current study examined child compliance (Wave 5; W5) as a mediator of the association between adolescent mothers’ social competence (Wave 4; W4) and children's behavioral and academic outcomes (Wave 6; W6), and whether this mediation varied depending on children's effortful control (W4) in a sample of 204 Mexican‐origin adolescent mothers (M_age at W4 = 19.94, SD = .99) and their children (M_age at W4 = 36.21 months, SD = .45). Adolescent mothers reported on their own social competence and their children's effortful control and externalizing problems; compliance was assessed using observational methods; and academic readiness was assessed using standardized developmental assessments. Findings based on structural equation modeling revealed that adolescent mothers’ social competence was positively related to children's compliance among children with high effortful control, but not among those with low effortful control. Moreover, child compliance mediated the longitudinal association between adolescent mothers’ social competence and child externalizing problems and academic readiness. Discussion focuses on the importance of considering the role of child temperament in understanding how adolescent mothers’ social competence is subsequently associated with children's social and academic adjustment.     

Body Image and Body Change Strategies Within Friendship Dyads and Groups: Implications for Adolescent Appearance‐based Rejection Sensitivity

Appearance‐based rejection sensitivity (appearance‐RS) consists of concerns about, and expectations of, rejection because of one's appearance (Park). This study examined dyadic‐ and group‐level friendship characteristics as correlates of early adolescents' appearance‐RS. Using subgroups of an initial sample of 380 participants, appearance‐RS was examined within best friend relationships (N = 132, M_age = 13.84) and friendship groups (N = 186, M_age = 13.83). Overall, best friends were similar in their appearance‐RS, body dissatisfaction, restrictive dieting, appearance‐conditional self‐worth, appearance values, and self‐rated attractiveness. Similarities between individuals and their friendship groups were consistent with the findings for dyads, except for self‐rated attractiveness and dieting. Appearance‐RS was higher in adolescents whose best friends and friendship groups reported greater restrictive dieting and appearance‐conditional self‐worth. In general, associations did not differ for boys and girls, but having a higher proportion of boys in the friendship group was associated with lowered appearance concerns.     

Hostile interpretation as a transdiagnostic factor for cooccurring anxiety in boys with aggressive behavior problems

Many children with aggressive behavior problems also suffer from anxiety. This cooccurrence may perhaps be explained by transdiagnostic factors. Identifying these factors seems crucial, as they may be important targets to treat these cooccurring problems effectively. This two-study paper investigates whether hostile interpretation of others’ intentions is a transdiagnostic factor for cooccurring aggression and anxiety problems, examining two samples of boys in middle childhood. We assessed boys’ aggression and anxiety using teacher-report in Study 1 (N = 84, M_age = 10.10), and parent-report in Study 2 (N = 115, M_age = 10.55). In both studies, we assessed hostile interpretation using vignettes describing ambiguous provocations by peers. Both studies revealed a strong association between aggression and anxiety problems, underscoring the necessity to examine factors that can explain this cooccurrence. However, in neither study was this association reduced when we added hostile interpretation to the model, suggesting that hostile interpretation did not function as a transdiagnostic factor in our samples. One possible explanation for these findings is that hostile interpretation predicts both aggression and anxiety problems, but in different children. We, therefore, encourage scholars to conduct more research to explain the high comorbidity of aggression and anxiety problems in children. Future research should also examine hostile interpretation as predictor or transdiagnostic factor for aggression and anxiety problems in more diverse population, including girls and other age groups.     

Halo and association effects: Cognitive biases in teacher attunement to peer‐nominated bullies,victims, and prosocial students

This study examined whether teachers’ perceptions of students’ behavior (referring to halo effects) and the behavior of teacher‐perceived friends (referring to association effects) influenced teachers’ ability to recognize students identified as bullies, victims, and prosocial by their peers. Data came from 1,458 children (M_age = 10.5, 47.5% girls) and 56 teachers (M_age = 40.8, 66.1% females). Perceived likeability was associated with decreased odds and teachers’ perceptions of popularity and externalizing behavior were associated with increased odds for teacher attunement to bullying. Perceived likeability and affiliation were associated with decreased odds for teacher attunement to victimized students. Teachers’ perceptions of externalizing behavior were associated with decreased odds, whereas teachers’ perceptions of affiliation and academic competence were associated with increased odds for attunement to prosociality. Finally, a positive association was found between teacher attunement and the average behavior of teacher‐perceived friends for bullying, victimization, and prosociality.     

Maternal influences on effortful control in adolescence: Developmental pathways to externalizing behaviors

Adolescents' effortful control is subject to numerous maternal influences. Specifically, a mother's own effortful control is associated with her child's effortful control. However, maternal substance use, psychopathology, and stress within the parenting role may also lead to poor effortful control for their child. Poor effortful control during adolescence can subsequently contribute to a variety of negative outcomes, including externalizing behaviors. A sample of 460 adolescents (47% female, 59.3% Non‐Hispanic Caucasian) was selected from a longitudinal, multigenerational study. The goal was to examine maternal effortful control, substance use, psychopathology, and stress in their offspring's childhood (M_age = 6.27) and their influence on their children's effortful control in early adolescence (M_age = 12.21) and the subsequent effect of effortful control on adolescents’ externalizing behavior (M_age = 13.53). Maternal effortful control (measured via conscientiousness) and psychopathology were associated with adolescent effortful control, which was associated with externalizing behavior a year later. Additionally, there was a significant indirect association between maternal effortful control and adolescent externalizing behaviors via adolescent effortful control. Thus, adolescent effortful control is associated with maternal effortful control but also subject to specific maternal risk factors in childhood. These results inform potential maternal strategies for promoting positive developmental outcomes in adolescents.     

The key role of positive parenting and children’s temperament in post‐institutionalized children’s socio‐emotional adjustment after adoption placement. A RCT study

Parenting interventions represent a means for experimentally inquiring socio‐emotional change of post‐institutionalized children after adoption. We used this approach in a three time point RCT study involving 83 post‐institutionalized children (M_age = 33.5 months, SD = 17.1) and their adoptive mothers (M_age = 42.6, SD = 3.9), attending either the Video‐Feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting in adoption and foster care or a dummy intervention. Controlling for gender and age at adoption, children showed a significant change in their socio‐emotional adjustment in the specific variables inquired—that is, emotional availability‐EA, and behavioral problems—after intervention attendance. Mediation and moderated mediation models showed that maternal EA was a main factor affecting children’s EA and externalizing behavioral problems, with a key moderating role played by children’s temperament; children with high scores on temperamental negative affect benefitted most from their mothers’ increase in EA.     

A formulation of the determinism hypothesis

The author tries to formulate what a determinist believes to be true. The formulation is based on some concepts defined in a systems-theoretical manner, mainly on the concept of an experiment over the sets A ^m (a set of m-tuples of input values) and B ⁿ (a set of n-tuples of output values) in the time interval (t ₁, ..., t _k ) (symbolically E[t ₁,..., t _k , A ^m , B ⁿ ]), on the concept of a behavior of the system S ^m,n (=(A ^m , B ⁿ )) on the basis of the experiment E[t ₁, ..., t _k , A ^m , B ⁿ ] and, indeed, on the concept of deterministic behavior .... The resulting formulation of the deterministic hypothesis shows that this hypothesis expresses a belief that we always could find some hidden parameters.     

Chinese immigrant child and maternal reactions to disappointment: Cultural fit impacts the bidirectional associations

Culture provides a context in which emotion socialization is embedded, and the bidirectional effects between parents’ emotion socialization and children's emotional behaviors may work differently across cultures. To understand how emotion socialization may be shaped by the cultural context, we examined the moderating role of Asian cultural values in bidirectional associations between maternal emotion socialization practices and child anger and sadness. Seventy-four U.S. Chinese immigrant mothers (M_age = 40.71 years, SD = 3.61) completed measures assessing their Asian cultural values and parenting style. Children experienced a disappointment task in the lab (Cole, 1986), and mothers and their children (M_age = 6.73 years, SD = .95; 55% female) were observed at two different time intervals. Mothers’ socialization practices (emotion dismissing, emotion coaching, and moral and behavioral socialization) and children's anger and sadness responses at both intervals were coded. Mothers’ greater Asian cultural values buffered the negative effects of their emotion dismissing practices on children's anger and sadness. However, Asian cultural values did not impact the effects of children's anger and sadness on mothers’ emotion dismissing practices. When mothers endorsed fewer Asian values, their emotion coaching practices reduced children's anger and sadness. Children's anger and sadness evoked more emotion coaching practices when mothers endorsed lower levels of Asian cultural values. In addition, children's anger and sadness evoked greater moral and behavioral responses from their mothers when mothers endorsed more Asian values. Overall, findings underscored the importance of cultural values in the interplay between mothers’ emotion socialization practices and children's emotions.