THE IMPACT OF INVESTIGATOR PERCEPTIONS OF VICTIM LEGITIMACY ON THE PROCESSING OF RAPE/SEXUAL ASSAULT CASES*

This analysis of 610 reports of rape/sexual assault, collected during six months of intensive field research within a metropolitan police department, addresses the issue of differential handling of such reports by police investigators. Their attributions of “relative legitimacy” to cases and victims are analyzed in the light of information items contained in the offense reports completed by patrol officers. Victim credibility, victim consent, offense seriousness, and victim characteristics are among the factors taken into account by the investigators as they assess rape/sexual assault cases and victims for the purpose of making dispositionary decisions. The likelihood of a case being actively pursued is discussed in terms of the tendency of investigators to classify cases along a continuum from “real” rapes to “deals”.     

SEX-ROLE ATTITUDE CHANGE AND REPORTING OF RAPE VICTIMIZATION, 1973–1985

This article examines the relationship between sex-role attitude change and female victims' reports of rape incidents to police in an analysis of time-series data from national attitude surveys of college freshmen and adults, and from annual victimization surveys. Declining support for traditional sex-role attitudes among both college women and men is strongly related to an increase in the proportion of rapes by nonstranger assailants that were reported to police from 1973 to 1985. However, victims' reports of rapes by strangers are more closely related to offenders' use of weapons during sexual assaults. These findings and other evidence against alternative explanations suggest that the cultural bases for "rape myths" have eroded during the 1970s and 1980s, and that broader definitions of rape have contributed to increased reporting of certain forms of sexual assault to police.     

The tears have not stopped,the violence has not ended: political upheaval,ethnicity, and violence against women in Indonesia

The view of women as the sexual property of men becomes heightened during periods of political unrest. The rape of Chinese-Indonesian women in Jakarta, Indonesia, during the May 1998 student demonstrations confirms this observation. This article describes interviews with Jakarta rape victims conducted by Volunteers for Humanity--a coalition of nongovernmental organizations established after attacks on the opposition Indonesian Democratic Party in 1996. By July 1998, Volunteers for Humanity had documented 152 rapes in Jakarta and 20 rape-related deaths. The result of this fact-collecting was formation of the National Commission on Violence Against Women. Women's groups originally established to address violence against women are now incorporating racism into their campaign agendas. National publicity of these assaults led to further reports of violence against minority-group women perpetuated by the military, paramilitary forces, or civilian men in powerful positions in other areas of the country (e.g., Aceh, East Timor, and Irian Jaya/West Papua). In recent months, a backlash has developed, with official denial that any rapes occurred and intimidation and threats of sexual violence against potential witnesses. Future responses must involve multiethnic, multireligious groups to prevent further isolation/victimization of Chinese-Indonesian women.     

Social reactions to sexual assault victims from various support sources

This study examined positive and negative social reactions received by 323 victims disclosing sexual assaults to informal and formal support providers. Analyses of both quantitative and qualitative data indicated that both positive and negative reactions are commonly received by victims disclosing their assaults to others, but that victims seeking help from formal support sources are more commonly faced with negative reactions of victim blame, stigmatizing responses, and controlling reactions from others. Qualitative analysis of written responses provided by respondents also revealed other less common but unhelpful reactions of assault disclosure such as rape myths, violations of the victim's confidential disclosures, and revictimization. Preliminary analyses of the effects of specific reactions on adjustment from different types of support providers suggested that reactions of friends are particularly important for recovery. Positive reactions from friends appear to be more helpful, whereas negative reactions appear to be harmful from both informal and formal support sources. Implications for research and treatment of sexual assault victims are discussed.     

What really happened? A validation study of rape survivors' help-seeking experiences with the legal and medical systems

Much of what is known about rape survivors' experiences with the legal and medical systems has come from victims' accounts; rarely have researchers collected "the other side of the story" to find out what system personnel say did or did not happen in these interactions. In the current study, rape survivors who sought emergency medical care were interviewed before their hospital discharge about what services they received and how they were treated by social system personnel. Corresponding accounts were then collected from doctors, nurses, and police officers. There was significant interrater reliability between the survivors and legal and medical system personnel regarding what services were or were not provided ("service delivery") and if system personnel engaged in "secondary victimization" behaviors (i.e., statements/actions that could be distressing to victims). However, police officers and doctors significantly underestimated the impact they were having on survivors. Victims reported significantly more post-system-contact distress than service providers thought they were experiencing.     

Men's and Women's Interpretation and Endorsement of Items Measuring Self-Reported Heterosexual Aggression

Early research on sexual aggression (e.g., sexual coercion, sexual assault, and rape) mainly focused on men as perpetrators and women as victims; more recently, researchers have begun to investigate women as perpetrators of sexual aggression as well. However, most measures of sexual aggression perpetration were designed for use with men and have not been well validated with women. This study sought to examine two different measures of sexual aggression perpetration in terms of their convergent validity for both men and women and to examine gender differences and similarities in item interpretation using open-ended inquiries. Participants were 590 individuals (395 women, 195 men) with a mean age of 25 years (SD = 8.1) recruited from an undergraduate psychology subject pool and an online convenience sample. The majority of the sample was White (65.4%) and Black (20.3%). All measures were completed online anonymously. Results suggested that convergent validity for the two measures was less than optimal, particularly for women. Further, item interpretation analyses revealed that, compared to men, more than twice the percentage of women provided a false-positive response to one of the measures, suggesting that women may be more likely than men to endorse self-report perpetration items incorrectly.     

Social cognitions about adult male victims of female sexual assault

Although men are far less likely than women to be victims of heterosexual assault, such cases have been reported with increasing frequency in recent years. We compared social judgments about male and female victims of heterosexual and homosexual rape and tested hypotheses concerning social cognitions that are assumed to underlie a male rape mythology. In a 2 × 2 × 2 design, 77 male and 89 female subjects made a series of judgments about a sexual assault case in which sex of victim and sex of assailants were manipulated. Consistent with the hypotheses, the male victim of sexual assault by females was judged more likely to have initiated or encouraged the sex acts, and more enjoyment and less stress were attributed to him. This pattern of results was more pronounced among male subjects. The results are discussed in relation to stereotypic beliefs concerning male sex roles, sexual motivation, and sexual functioning that are likely to affect the social cognitions of both observers and male victims of heterosexual assault.     

Voices from the margin: a case study of a rural lesbian's experience with woman-to-woman sexual violence

The purpose of this case study is to understand how a lesbian survivor coped with traumatic stress resulting from woman-to-woman sexual violence in a rural context. This research was grounded on the feminist paradigm, and the case study approach was used for data collection and analysis. The results indicate that the lesbian survivor encountered numerous obstacles to admitting the rape and seeking help. A number of these perceived challenges were associated with the rural sociocultural context (e.g., conservative culture, religious fundamentalism, low levels of anonymity, small gay/lesbian communities, and geographical isolation), myths of lesbian utopia, a heterosexist legal system, and a lack of lesbian-friendly helping resources. Despite being confronted with numerous challenges, the survivor demonstrated her resilience through the use of a variety of strategies to cope with the rape aftermath and detrimental social reactions. Positive social support from her gay and lesbian friends also facilitated her recovery. The findings highlight the importance of considering the intersection of trauma and cultural oppression in understanding lesbian survivors' experiences with same-sex sexual assault.     

Police interviews of sexual assault reporters: do attitudes matter?

Sexual assault is underreported in the United States. Survivors are often reluctant to make police reports for various reasons; one is fear of revictimization by criminal justice professionals. Conversely, police officers often lack skills for interviewing crime victims. Posttraumatic stress reactions among victims can exacerbate the problem. Although some victims prefer female interviewers, it is not known whether they are more skilled. A sample of 429 police officers completed a written survey testing their rape myth acceptance and knowledge of how to interview rape reporters. A significant relationship between rape myth acceptance and interviewing skill was discovered. Although officer gender was related to interviewing skill, the effect was mediated by rape myth acceptance. Specific officer behaviors related to high rape myth acceptance were identified. Implications for selection of police to conduct victim interviews were discussed.     

Female sex offenders: a comparison of solo offenders and co-offenders

Even though much of the prior sex offender literature focuses on males, recent research has included females as offenders. Such research, however, has been limited by small sample sizes. Several researchers have proposed typologies of female sex offenders that include both females who act alone (i.e., solo offenders) and females who act with another person (i.e., co-offenders), often a male. The current research includes a cross-national sample of 123 females who were solo offenders and 104 who were co-offenders. It was found that the two groups of females were not significantly different in regard to their age, race, time of offense, and the location of the offense. Co-offenders were more likely than solo offenders to have more than one victim, to have both male and female victims, to be related to the victim, and to have a nonsexual offense in addition to the sexual offense listed.     

Black Women's experiences of sexual assault and disclosure: Insights from the margins

Black women experience higher rates of sexual assault or rape than their White counterparts and the U.S. Department of Justice finds only one Black woman out of 15 will report her rape. This article reviews the literature on the ways in which Black women's sexual assault disclosure experiences are framed by their unique social space at the margins of society due to systemic oppression based on race, gender, and class (Settles, Pratt‐Hyatt, and Buchanan). We situate this review around three major areas of marginalization: (a) the delegitimization of Black women as victims of rape, (b) the social construction of Black women as inordinately strong, and (c) the sanctioning of intraracial sexual assault disclosure. Despite a call for action by Angela Davis in 1985, Black women's unique and varied intersectional experiences around sexual assault and disclosure are understudied. We implore scholars to continue this important research and conclude this article with insights on future research and activism.     

Abstracts and reviews

Although men are far less likely than women to be victims of heterosexual assault, such cases have been reported with increasing frequency in recent years. We compared social judgments about male and female victims of heterosexual and homosexual rape and tested hypotheses concerning social cognitions that are assumed to underlie a male rape mythology. In a 2 × 2 × 2 design, 77 male and 89 female subjects made a series of judgments about a sexual assault case in which sex of victim and sex of assailants were manipulated. Consistent with the hypotheses, the male victim of sexual assault by females was judged more likely to have initiated or encouraged the sex acts, and more enjoyment and less stress were attributed to him. This pattern of results was more pronounced among male subjects. The results are discussed in relation to stereotypic beliefs concerning male sex roles, sexual motivation, and sexual functioning that are likely to affect the social cognitions of both observers and male victims of heterosexual assault.     

Interracial rape: Examining the increasing frequency argument

A number of researchers have recently challenged the long-held notion among criminologists that rape, along with most other violent crimes, is an intraracial crime. Based on analysis of survey data they concluded that black rapists “prefer” or “seek out” white victims and that the likelihood of a black offender selecting a white victim has been increasing during recent years. Data presented here (1977–88 National Crime Surveys) refute the notion that black rapists “prefer” white victims. Moreover these same data fail to support the contention that rapes involving black offenders and white victims have been increasing. According to National Crime Survey estimates, the proportion of black offenders that victimize whites has been declining. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meetings of the American Society of Criminology, November 1991.     

How Qualitative Research Can Inform Clinical Interventions in Families Recovering From Sibling Sexual Abuse

The impact of sibling sexual abuse (SSA) has been culturally and therapeutically minimised and has received scant research attention. Furthermore, prior research has focused upon the separate experiences of the victim or the offender, or upon seeking family dysfunction explanations. In contrast, this qualitative study attempts to understand the experiences of all family members (victims, offenders, parents and other siblings) when SSA is disclosed. The pathway to recovery for each family member is identified. A systemic analysis of these (often conflicted) pathways of recovery provides some surprising findings and contributes to an understanding of the difficulties facing families in this situation, the constraints on family support and connectedness, validation for the victim and offender accountability.     

Stifled Voices: Barriers to Help-Seeking Behavior for South African Childhood Sexual Assault Survivors

In South Africa, females under the age of 18 comprise approximately 40% of the rapes and other forms of sexual assault that occur. However, South African girls face multiple barriers to seeking help in the aftermath of sexual assault. This literature review provides an overview of childhood sexual assault in South African girls and addresses barriers to help-seeking behaviors. Risk factors as well as relevant sociocultural, economic, structural, and psychological perceptions regarding childhood sexual assault among South African girls are also discussed. Finally, clinical implications, culturally relevant psychotherapeutic techniques, and suggestions for future research are provided in an effort to reduce the negative mental health consequences for the victims.     

Conceptualizing the "wantedness" of women's consensual and nonconsensual sexual experiences: implications for how women label their experiences with rape

Sex is often conceptualized either as wanted and consensual or as unwanted and nonconsensual, reflecting an implicit model of wanting that is unidimensional and dichotomous and that conflates wanting and consenting. This study had three objectives: developing a multidimensional model for conceptualizing the wantedness of a sexual act, using this model to compare women's experiences with rape and consensual sex, and assessing whether wantedness is related to rape acknowledgement. Participants were college women who described their experiences with rape (n = 77) or consensual sexual intercourse (n = 87). Results supported a multidimensional model of sexual wanting and a wanting-consenting distinction. Compared with acknowledged rape victims, unacknowledged rape victims reported wanting the sexual intercourse more, despite not having consented.     

Conceptualizing the “Wantedness” of Women's Consensual and Nonconsensual Sexual Experiences: Implications for How Women Label Their Experiences With Rape

Sex is often conceptualized either as wanted and consensual or as unwanted and nonconsensual, reflecting an implicit model of wanting that is unidimensional and dichotomous and that conflates wanting and consenting. This study has three objectives: developing a multidimensional model for conceptualizing the wantedness of a sexual act, using this model to compare women's experiences with rape and consensual sex, and assessing whether wantedness is related to rape acknowledgment. Participants were college women who described their experiences with rape (n = 77) or consensual sexual intercourse (n = 87). Results supported a multidimensional model of sexual wanting and a wanting—consenting distinction. Compared with acknowledged rape victims, unacknowledged rape victims reported wanting the sexual intercourse more despite not having consented.     

Morality and Patriarchal White Sovereignty

This article offers a reading of three separate stories of gang rapes that have been prominent in the Australian media since 2000. The men involved – an Indigenous leader, young Sydney men identified as Muslim and several ostensibly un-raced professional footballers, have been positioned through different legal outcomes, media representations and through a prominently deployed discourse of morality. The article locates the gang rape stories in mutual inter-relationship with the expression of racism in Australia and the performance of ‘patriarchal white sovereignty’ by the Australian state in the 2000s in the global climate since 11 September 2001. It argues that the politics of race and whiteness, and the protocols for their speaking, have been central in the telling of the rape stories. These stories of gang rape have also created differently racialized positions for women including some remarkably respectful mainstream representations of the women raped by non-white men. The article concludes that these stories perform a gendered and raced moral justification for the racist and colonialist policies of the Australian state, both within national borders and beyond, that characterized the national government led by Prime Minister John Howard (1996–2007).