Towards a Theory of Social Work Expertise

Correspondence to Prof. Jan Fook, School of Social Inquiry, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3217, Australia Summary This paper begins by summarizing the results of a qualitativeexploratory study of thirty experienced social workers whichwas undertaken in order to identify some characteristics ofsocial work expertise. Some of the features identified includea confidence with professional identity and an ability to dealwith complexities. Participants were also able quickly to prioritizerelevant factors and were aware of constraints and resources,but made conscious use of formal theory only minimally. Thefull results of this study are reported elsewhere (Fook et al.,in press). The main purpose of this paper is to explore theimplications of these results in developing a theory of socialwork expertise. The issues examined include the debates aroundthe relationship between theory and practice in social work,the generic versus the specialist nature of social work, therelevance of existing theories of expertise to social work,and the affirmation of artistic elements of social work practice.     

The Gender Pay Gap: Concrete Indicator of Women's Progress Toward Equality

A male–female earnings gap has persisted through the last half century. Attempts to explain the disparity by attributing it to gender differences in work patterns reveal the unexamined assumption that male work patterns should form the basis of comparison. The gap affects full- and part-time workers and appears within racial/ethnic groups, educational levels, and occupations, and across countries. Forecasting analyses show no convincing evidence that the gap is narrowing. Although the causes of the gender pay gap are complex, data on women's lower pay within educational levels and occupations and data on women's dramatically lower recognition in domains where their talents and achievements are equal to men's (e.g., literary awards) implicate the undervaluing of work associated with women. Approaches to narrowing the gap are discussed. As psychologists, we should address this problem because our expertise bears directly on the issues and because our discipline is increasingly populated by women.     

Scientific Expertise and Natural Resource Decisions: Social Science Participation on Interdisciplinary Scientific Committees

Social scientists should seek greater involvement in interdisciplinary scientific committees, which often play important roles in natural resource management. In addition to our acknowledged areas of expertise, we have the ability to educate other disciplines about social sciences and, importantly, also about the realities of biophysical science input into policy processes. Two examples are worth noting. First, the asymmetry of scientific challenge can mean that biophysical science views/interpretations with favorable implications for organized groups' interests may have been "accepted" with little scrutiny, relative to work having unfavorable implications. Second and paradoxically, the structure of decision making can mean that preferences for "scientific caution" will result in resource management decisions that are anything but cautious. These and other observations need to be tested through participant observation by a greater number of social scientists on scientific committees in the future.     

Need, allocation and justice — on priorities in the social services

Cuts in public spending and financial constraints faced by Swedish municipalities have led to an increased interest in issues concerning priorities. This interest reflects a practical need to meet current rationing with accurate allocative decisions, where the interests of different areas and categories of users are dealt with in a well-considered way. In social work, these needs today are obvious. The article raises issues concerning priorities with relevance for social work in the Swedish social services. The purpose is to develop a conceptual and theoretical framework regarding how priorities on different levels of decision-making are made, where the main focus is on different principles as grounds for and forms of prioritizing. Central are the following questions: What actors can be identified in the process of shaping priorities in social work? What are the principles behind allocative decisions made on different levels of the municipal organization? Which categories of potential and actual users gain advantages or suffer disadvantages from different allocative principles? A theoretical division into first- and second-order decisions and of allocations from notions of efficiency, justice and self-interest offer the main structure for the article. First-order decisions are political decision-making concerning the total amount of resources distributed to various sectors or programs. Second-order decisions deal with the issue of how to allocate given resources among claimants or possible users. Efficiency is discussed from the aspects of productivity, marginal utility and longterm effects. Material principles of justice dealt with are the principles of need, increment, contribution and merit. Self-interest is discussed in terms of self-serving bias, group-oriented interests and professional gain.     

More Than Epistemology: Relationships in Applied Research With Underserved Communities

The nature and consequences of researcher-participant relationships are explored within methodological frameworks, and the impact of relationship roles and decisions are examined through an example of applied research with low-income women and an agency that serves them. Three types of relationship issues and decisions are discussed: (1) the construction of research relationships with two groups of participants: agency staff and agency clients; (2) the involvement of multiple researchers; and (3) the definition and boundaries of the research relationships pertinent to work with people and communities with limited resources. Researcher-participant relationship dilemmas and decisions have implications for the quality of our research and the lives of our participants.     

Counterintuitive behavior of social systems

This paper addresses several issues of broad concern in the United States: population trends; the quality of urban life; national policy for urban growth; and the unexpected, ineffective, or detrimental results often generated by government programs in these areas.The author does attempt to indicate how multiloop feed-back systems (to which our social systems belong) mislead us because our intuition and judgement have been formed to expect behavior different from that actually possessed by such systems. At times programs cause exactly the reverse of desired results.It is now possible to explain how such contrary results can happen. There are fundamental reasons why people misjudge the behavior of social systems. There are orderly processes at work that frequently lead people to wrong decisions when faced with complex and highly interacting systems. Until we come to a much better understanding of social systems, we should expect that attempts to develop corrective programs will continue to disappoint us.     

INTENSIVE ASSESSMENT FOR “INTENSIVE ASSISTANCE”: UNEMPLOYMENT,MENTAL HEALTH AND THE NEED FOR HOLISTIC ASSESSMENT OF LONG‐TERM UNEMPLOYED PEOPLE

This article will comment on recently announced changes to the Intensive Assistance (IA) program and to the Community Support Program (CSP) as they relate to the assessment of mental health and similar issues in recipients of unemployment benefits. It will be argued that proposed resources to be spent on assessment of IA clients and increased funding and numbers for the CSP are much needed alterations and should be welcomed. It will be argued that agencies assisting IA clients risk significant underestimation of mental‐health and related issues in their clients if they rely only on Centrelink's Job Seeker Classification Instrument (JSCI) as a screening tool and do not expend resources on additional professional assessment. The reasons behind failure of such issues to be easily identified in the current system include difficulty in administration of the JSCI, fear of disclosure by the client, client ignorance of their condition and its relevance to work‐ability, the lack of mental‐health expertise in private sector employment agencies and the current high cost. of purchasing professional assessment. Recently announced changes to IA and the CSP appear to allow for considerable improvements in identifying and managing these issues.     

Child protection revisited: balancing state intervention and family autonomy through social work processes

This paper explores selected findings from a qualitative study of the 1989 Children Act, which examined ways in which the new definitions of significant harm were being interpreted in practice. Significant harm is seen as a major site where state intervention and family autonomy are balanced, especially through establishing thresholds for intervention. The data are analysed in relation to the social work processes of assessment, intervention and evaluation. These are seen as a series of interactions between families and practitioners, in which goals are identified, methods used and resources mobilized. Key decisions and levels of change address the paramountry of the child's welfare. These processes are also under-pinned by new legislative requirements. The practitioners displayed their professionalism during a period of transition and change. Social work processes facilitated non-judgemental practices which empowered the families in the difficult circumstances of their lives. The paper concludes that balancing state intervention and family autonomy requires social work of a high order and a profound understanding of complex issues.     

The impact of ‘being assessed’ by a disabled children's team: a personal reflective account

The body of ‘service user’ literature confirms the value of parental perceptions of child and family social work and the insight parents and others can offer. This paper lends my voice to the literature regarding parental perceptions, inspired by the work of Pamela Davies, who provided a personal account of the impact of a child protection investigation. This paper draws upon my experiences of being a father of two ‘disabled children’ and undergoing an assessment of need. This paper seeks to draw attention to issues of choice, power imbalances and the role of expertise. My personal experience of undergoing an assessment was that it was an emotionally fraught process, for the duration of the assessment, our family stress increased and we had a sense of having to ‘battle’ for the support we needed. As such, my personal experience fits well with the wider body of literature, which highlights the increased stress of caring for children with additional needs, the challenges of ‘fitting’ disabled children into the frameworks used to assess all children and the difficulty for parents and professionals in distinguishing between ‘normal’ parenting responsibilities and the additional responsibilities of caring for a disabled child.     

Role of Expertise,Consensus, and Informational Valence in Children's Performance Judgments

Two experiments examined the role of expertise, consensus, and informational valence on children's acceptance of informant testimony about the quality of work produced by a target child. In Experiment 1, 96 4‐ to 5.9‐year‐olds and 6‐ to 8‐year‐olds were told about an expert who gave a positive or negative assessment of art or music that was contradicted by one layperson or a consensus of three laypersons. Generally, participants endorsed positive assessments as correct irrespective of expertise and consensus, but older children were more likely than younger children to want to learn from the expert in the future. To examine whether reluctance to accept expertise was due to the negative quality of the information, the expert in Experiment 2 simply stated that additional work was needed. Both age groups selected the expert as correct and reported wanting to learn from the expert in the future. Contributions to social learning models are discussed.     

Daubert v. Merrell Dow pharmaceuticals: Toward a better relationship between law and science

[Scientists] are neither Gods nor charlatans; they are merely experts, like every other expert on the political stage. They have, of course, their special area of expertise, the physical world, but their knowledge is no more immaculate than that of economists, health policy makers, police officers, legal advocates, weather forecasters, travel agents, car mechanics, or plumbers. The expertise that we need to deal with them is the well‐developed expertise of everyday life; it is what we use when we deal with plumbers and the rest. Plumbers are not perfect-far from it‐but society is not beset with anti‐plumbers because being anti-plumbing is not a choice available to us.1     

本土社会工作实务的伦理困境与伦理抉择——基于上海青少年社会工作实践的质性研究

社会工作在实践过程中面临的最大困境是人与文化互动过程所形成的多元可能,这种多元可能往往使实务工作者在提供专业服务过程中遭遇价值抉择的两难。本研究运用质性研究的方法,以上海青少年社会工作者的实践为研究对象,着力探讨当下本土社会工作伦理实践中的困境及抉择。研究发现,本土社会工作常见的伦理困境包括:保密与否、案主自决、利益冲突、专业界限、公平分配、价值冲突、同事关系。而社工在进行伦理抉择时,遵循三大基本原则:案主生命优先原则,法律规定、机构规范优于个人价值,人际关系取向。此外,研究以"人在情境中"的概念为框架基础,提出个体因素(即社工个体对伦理抉择的影响)、问题因素(即伦理困境本身对伦理抉择的影响)、情境因素(即外部环境对伦理抉择的影响)这个三维分析架构来系统分析社会工作伦理抉择中的影响因素及其过程。最后,研究建议要建构本土的社会工作伦理体系,即建构本土导向的社会工作伦理原则、建立操作取向的社会工作伦理机制。     

Chapter 17. Rural Mental Health

SUMMARY

Mental health services available in many rural communities are too limited in scope and availability to meet the needs of rural citizens. The future of mental health services for the rural poor will be impacted by state government decisions about Medicaid funding priorities. It is important that rural practitioners, especially those that work in the fields of mental health, health, and aging services, engage in advocacy for better coverage of the rural poor and low-income elderly persons. This chapter discusses issues of advocacy related to improving the provision of mental health services to older rural citizens as an important goal in the larger effort to expand and improve rural mental health service delivery throughout the nation.     

Fit for Work? The Influence of Sick Pay and Job Flexibility on Sickness Absence and Implications for Presenteeism

Recent developments in UK policy on health and employment have sought to change perceptions about what constitutes ‘fitness for work’. With the aim of reducing the incidence and duration of sickness absence, a range of initiatives, including the introduction of the ‘fit note’, are challenging the belief that it is necessary to be 100 per cent well in order to be at work. However, this article suggests that contextual factors independent of health may also influence people's decisions about whether or not to attend work at times of reduced wellness. Drawing upon data from a qualitative study of mental health and employment, this article illustrates how the terms and conditions of a person's employment may influence sickness absence decisions in a number of ways. It is argued that sick pay provisions, size of employer and nature of work may influence both decisions to take time off and decisions about when to return to work. The degree of flexibility to manage one's workload around times of poorer health may also have a bearing on whether people feel able to carry on with their work without recourse to sickness absence. Therefore, it may be important for policy interventions to consider not only health circumstances but also structural/contextual influences on conceptualizations of being ‘fit for work’. The implications of such contextually‐influenced decision‐making for ‘presenteeism’ are also considered. It is suggested that current conceptualizations of presenteeism are somewhat ambiguous; employees coming to work despite ill health is simultaneously presented as a problem and an aspiration.     

Advance Elder Care Decision Making

Abstract

Advances in modern technology have resulted in increasing health care options. Unfortunately, many adults do not think about health and end-of-life decisions until they are faced with a health crisis or long-term care issues. The lack of planning has left many families devastated and overwhelmed by the decisions they face on behalf of their loved ones. Social workers and other professionals are observing family members who are ill-prepared for the decisions they have to make and the roles that they undertake as a result of the failing health of an older relative. The Advance Elder Care Family Planning model (AECFP) is designed to empower families before they face these problems.     

Euthanasia: an introduction

It has been argued that euthanasia is one of the most pressing social concerns of our times. A review of current scientific and legal materials, however, indicates that this issue is a complex and contentious one that crosses numerous perspectives and theoretical orientations. In order to provide background for the other articles in this collection, we present a brief history of attitudes toward euthanasia. In addition, various terms that are associated with the concept of euthanasia are defined. Finally, this paper provides a framework for the articles that follow by suggesting that three central issues must be addressed in order to resolve the controversies surrounding euthanasia. These are (1) the establishment of standardized criteria of euthanasia eligibility, (2) the investigation of public attitudes regarding acceptable means for engaging in euthanasia, and (3) the evaluation of the roles of professionals who are directly involved in euthanasia decisions. We hope that the following articles will provide insight into these issues.     

Can We Afford not to Develop Social Work Practice?

Summary This paper outlines the main arguments for resources to be directedtowards developing practice methodology and skills. A reviewof recent research literature indicates that there are a groupof cases which take up much social work time and resources butthat this work lacks professional expertise and effectiveness.Outcome research in related fields is also reviewed. A synthesisof these studies' conclusions suggests that social workers couldbe effective though the essential skills are rare. The implicationsof these findings for the focus and nature of social work trainingare discussed.     

Supporting ethical use of electronic monitoring for people living with dementia: Social work’s role in assessment,decision-making,and review

Walking outdoors supports health and well-being, but some people living with dementia are at increased risk of getting lost and of harm while missing. Electronic monitoring can potentially play an important preventative role by enabling the person’s location to be continuously monitored by caregivers. However, there are considerable ethical concerns arising from electronic monitoring. This paper explores these thematically, drawing attention to its implications for autonomy and liberty; privacy; dignity; the rights and needs of caregivers and families; beneficence and nonmaleficence. Following from this, key questions for consideration in social work assessment are identified. The ethical issues necessitate assessment of the person’s unique circumstances and preferences and that of their caregivers, and careful ethical deliberation in decision-making. Social work can play an important role in facilitating inclusive assessment and decision-making, leading to consensus on intervening with electronic monitoring. The need for the ongoing review following implementation is discussed to track whether decisions need modification in light of the experience of usage. In conclusion, while legislative instruments and professional codes of ethics frame social work practice responses, there is need for a nuanced debate about ethical use of electronic monitoring and specific guidance to inform assessment, decision-making, and review.