吐蕃与大食关系刍议

公元7世纪初,吐蕃和大食同时兴起,且成为亚洲大陆上全新的、举足轻重的政治力量.吐蕃与印度、波斯、大食之间业已存在着广泛的经济、文化交往．波斯一大食文明对吐蕃社会产生过深远影响,罗马一大食医学成份在吐蕃医学中占有重要地位;同样,吐蕃商人的足迹曾遍及印度、大食及中亚各国,他们将麝香、金、银、药物、盐、马等销往上述各地,促进了双方的经济、文化交流.8世纪初.随着两大帝国的对外扩张,吐蕃与大食在中亚地区直接碰撞,从而改变了亚洲大陆原有的政治格局.8世纪中叶后,随着唐朝势力退出西域．阿拔斯王朝东进和突厥的伊斯兰化.吐蕃“太半西御大食”,成为阻止大食东进的重要力量.     

丝绸南路

丝绸是我国古代人民的伟大发明,很早以前就输送到西方。公元前西方已把中国称作“赛里斯国”,意即蚕丝产地。从洛阳、长安西行,经秦州,过金城,穿河西走廊,或出阳关或出玉门,西逾葱岭到中亚各国,再去罗马,这条通道被西方称作丝绸之路。这条商路或旅行道路在汉代张骞通西域以前就存在着,汉武帝开河西四郡更保证了它的畅通。丝绸南路是指走西平郡(今西宁)进入草地,或北到张掖,或西出柴达木盆地达于南疆的道路,汉时称羌中道,南北朝时称吐谷浑道或青海道。公元4世纪后,河西走廊出现了群雄割据局面,     

西域祆教文明

祆教,即古代波斯的“琐罗亚斯德教”.公元前六世纪,由波斯人琐罗亚斯得(Zoroa-ster)创建.因该教拜火,以火光代表至善之神崇拜,故名“拜火教”,同时,该教还拜日月星辰,故又名“祆教”.公元三世纪,波斯萨珊朝时,定火祆为国教,一时在中亚地区盛行.公元七世纪,大食(即阿拉伯)统治波斯后,伊斯兰教取胜,迫使祆教徒大批东移.一、祆教的传入与兴盛祆教传入中原时间,学术界一般认为在公元六世纪,即波斯邻近的滑国于公元516年通梁之时.但是,祆教传入西域应早于这个时间.据《魏书》卷101记载;“高昌国俗事天神”.《北史》卷97与此载同.《魏书》卷102记载:“焉耆国俗事天神”.《周书》卷50与此载同.     

唃厮啰的交换贸易及货币形态

哺厮啰政权是北宋时期以青海东部为中心的一个强有力的藏族政权,在公元11世纪至12世纪初雄踞河湟地区,其首府在青唐,即今青海省西宁市,史称其辖地“占河湟间二千余里”,东至秦州西界,南达今果洛地区,北至祁连山,西据青海湖,大致占有《宋史·地理志》上的鄯、湟、廓、熙、河、洮、岷、迭、宕等州和积石军地,人口约百万。居民有吐蕃、党项、汉、回纥人,以及侨居境内的西域各地商人。其历代首领都接受宋廷的封赐,称臣纳贡,但又保持一定的独立性。“丝绸之路”北道在真宗年间被西夏控制后,众多西域贡使商人苦于西夏的“钞掠”而改走“青唐道”;响厮啰的统治者利用这一有利条件,大力发展经济贸易。各族商人络绎于道,纷沓而至,皆     

吐蕃占领区的民俗政策与文化交流的关系

公元663年(龙朔三年),吐蕃灭亡吐谷浑之后,唐蕃争夺安西四镇、丝绸之路和青海的战争,相当激烈,至今青海境内、黄河北岸还有多处名为“汉血原”和“汉尸原”的地方,遗存着当年战争的酷烈.到680年,吐蕃已“尽据羊同、党项及诸羌之地,东接凉、松、茂岭(?)等州,南邻天竺,西陷龟兹、疏勒等四镇,北抵突厥,地方万里,诸胡之盛,莫与为比.”(《资治通鉴》卷二○二).安史之乱起,唐朝驻守河陇的精兵猛将调回关陕一带,吐蕃乘机占领河陇,只有一些孤城在吐蕃包围下,苦战坚守.781年,沙州坚守十一年后,因弹尽粮绝,才与吐蕃签订城下之盟.至自,吐蕃在隐定住对西域、河陇的统治.851年(大中五年),吐蕃王廷内讧,无暇东顾,张义潮举兵起义,收复瓜、沙、伊诸州.到866年,吐蕃最后退出西域,河陇失地重归唐版籍.在这占领西域、河陇将近百年的时间里,吐蕃几乎     

吉隆文物古迹与蕃尼道上古代中尼文化交流的若干问题

公元７世纪中叶,中西交通上出现了一条新的国际通道──吐蕃尼婆罗道（以下简称为“蕃尼道”）。该道从西藏拉萨越喜玛拉雅山入加德满都谷地,经尼婆罗首都而入印度。如同有学者曾经论述的那样：“这条道路的开辟是汉藏、藏尼联姻的结晶,它对于中尼聘使友好往来和经济文化的交流都起了很大的作用”。①１９９０年,笔者对这条古道自吉隆马拉山口至中尼边境界河一线作过考古调查,在沿线发现了一批重要的实物史料,对于廓清这条古道及其相关的古代中尼文化交流上的若干问题,提供了一些补充资料。一蕃尼道分为南北两段,其北段系经青海至拉…     

波斯语苏非经典及其对中国穆斯林的影响

中国和伊朗两个文明古国有着悠久的历史友谊。早在汉代(前206～公元25)中国的使者开通西域以后,中国历史文献里就有了古波斯“安息”的记载。后来,随着著名的“丝绸之路”的开通和繁荣,中国和古代伊朗在政治、经济、宗教、文化等多方面有了广泛的交流。公元7世纪以后,随着伊斯兰教的向东传播,大批波斯、中亚穆斯林旅行家、商人、士兵和官员来到中国,并与中国的汉族等当地民族通婚、定居,形成了中国穆斯林新的群体———回族穆斯林。回族成为伊斯兰文化在中国的主要承载者,在使用汉语的同时,保存了大量的波斯文、阿拉伯文词汇和文化典籍。中…     

我国西藏与南亚交流的重要通道 丝绸之路南亚廊道西藏段管见

<正>西藏特殊的自然地理环境并未阻挡它与周边地区的交流互动，并且这里还成为了中国与南亚等地区沟通交流的前沿。公元7世纪初，兴起于雅隆河谷的强大的吐蕃政权，逐渐构建起以都城逻些（拉萨）为中心、向四方延伸的交通路线。在吐蕃的交通网络中，有两条最为著名的路线，分别是连通东方中原地区的唐蕃古道和连通南亚地区的蕃尼古道或吐蕃尼婆罗道，后者也就是现在所称的“丝绸之路”南亚廊道。2017—2018年，     

唐代吐蕃与粟特关系考述

7世纪中叶至9世纪中叶,吐蕃进入西域、河西走廊,与唐朝争夺安西四镇、敦煌等地,其间在进出南疆、河西乃远至中亚地区之际,与粟特人有了密切接触,甚至鄯善、敦煌等地的粟特移民一度成为吐蕃治下的属民.此外,吐蕃与粟特在物质文化、精神文化方面亦有广泛的交流,对两族各自的社会经济进步均起到积极的作用.     

吐蕃黄金制品上的狮纹研究

西藏、青海等地考古发掘出土,以及由私人或国内外博物馆收藏的吐蕃金银器及饰件,数量可观,已成为研究吐蕃社会历史与文化面貌的实物材料之一。以吐蕃金银器、饰件上所含有的狮子纹样为线索,根据特点与形态将其进行初步分类,在此基础上与不同文化中的狮纹题材进行比对,可以观察到吐蕃金银器物、饰件上的狮纹在制作时参考、借鉴了唐代中原、西亚萨珊波斯以及中亚粟特文化中的艺术表现手法与风格,并且展现出较为清晰的艺术演变脉络。同时,吐蕃工匠在创制时并未一概照搬,而是融合多种狮纹样式于吐蕃金银器物之上,所形成的独特风格也是体现吐蕃多元荟萃审美艺术特点的一个例证。     

青海大通县广惠寺蒙藏小学校创办考论

民国时期,青海省大通县广惠寺寺主七世敏珠儿活佛与省教育厅联合创办了大通县广惠寺蒙藏小学校,成为近代青海藏区寺院开办带有世俗教育性质学校的典型。依据档案材料对该学校的建校过程和发展制约因素进行考察,有助于深入理解青海区域教育及社会的近代转变。     

新疆回族驼运业的调查与研究

伴随着自元代起始的徙居,地处丝绸之路孔道的新疆回族便开始了远距离经商贸易活动。作为集货物运输与商业贸易为一体的商旅组织,回族驼运业随丝绸之路的兴衰而消长。到民国后,回族驼运业迅猛发展,在新疆驼运业中,规模最大,经营活动范围最广,资金最雄厚,社会影响最巨。本文依据田野调查资料及文献记载,对新疆回族驼运的组织与功能、通商路线与营运货物、驼运业兴起的原因及驼队的演变、新疆回族现在的经商运输情况等,作了系统论述。     

“南海一号”与宋代广西北部湾的对外交往

宋代中国南海海上贸易空前繁荣,留给后人的最直接航海物证就是"南海一号"古沉船。在汉代海上丝绸之路开辟与广西北部湾港口形成的基础上,随着宋代南海海上丝绸之路航线的改变,广西北部湾主要以安南等东南亚小国为交往对象,中心港口移至钦州,钦州博易场等地成为主要的贸易场所。"南海一号"发掘地所在的阳江外海面是商船从广州、福建港口经由北部湾到南海各国的经过地,也是广州与钦州间来往商船的经过地。广西北部湾港口特别是钦州港的对外交往是宋朝海外交往繁荣发展的一个缩影。     

吐蕃与大食早期经济往来

从远古时代起,青藏高原地区就与华北、葱岭以西有着广泛的经济、文化往来,吐蕃王朝的建立为促进青藏高原的统一,发展与青藏高原外部的联系创造了条件。吐蕃不仅积极参与东西方丝路贸易,而且其在西域、中亚的军事活动本身就兼具商业目的。商业贸易促进了吐蕃军事、经济、文化的发展,增强了吐蕃的综合实力,同时也为吐蕃社会的发展指明了方向。     

“家西番”之称谓探源

在青海,人们把生活在青海省湟中、湟源、大通等地从事农业生产,使用汉语、生活习俗受汉族影响较大的藏族群众称呼为"家西番"。认为"家西番"是"住家耕田"的藏族,"家"是"有固定住房的意思",区别于游牧的藏族,这是人们望文生义的结果,笔者认为"家西番"是一个藏汉合璧的称谓,"家"即藏语汉族(■)的音译,"西番"又是汉族对藏族的叫法,"家西番"义为"像汉族的藏族",类似的叫法在藏族内部也有,安多藏区牧民就把农业区的藏族叫作"家绒娃"(■)、"家绒"(■),义为"像汉族的农民",嘉绒藏族的族称也许就是这么来的。     

安西大都护府的伟大功绩和突厥对丝绸之路的贡献

本文论述了安西大都护府领导西北各民族在其存在的一百多年间为丝绸之路和丝路贸易繁荣发展建立的历史功绩.文章并不赞同过分夸大突厥对丝绸之路的危害,客观、公正地评价了突厥对于丝绸之路的贡献.     

元西域人蒙古化考

13世纪初蒙古帝国军队西征后,有大批西域人以各种途径移居蒙古草原。他们以后对元朝政治、军事、文化影响巨大。经元朝百年的磨和,他们不仅有很多人融入中原文化中而“华化”,同时由于元代蒙古贵族政治地位的影响和蒙古文化的强势存在,尚有许多西域人接受蒙古文化,认同蒙古民族共同体,终化为蒙古人之一部分。至北元时期,在蒙古各部中仍有很多西域部族名称存在,但实质上已作为地道的蒙古人出现,并积极参与北元政治军事活动。     

论入华粟特人流向的完整线索及最终归宿——基于粟特人“回鹘化”所作的考察

安史之乱后,中原汉人产生了排斥胡人的社会风潮,粟特人用改变姓氏、郡望等方法极力抹掉自己的胡人特征,出现了"汉化"现象.与此同时,由于丝绸之路为吐蕃所阻,众多入华粟特人转而以摩尼教徒的身份进入回鹘汗国,并籍草原丝绸之路开展东西方贸易,开始了"回鹘化"的进程.9世纪中叶及11世纪中叶回鹘汗国及甘州回鹘的"汉化"过程中,也裹杂了众多"回鹘化"了的粟特人.而对于最终融于维吾尔族的粟特人而言,"回鹘化"也是其重要阶段.     

韦皋与唐代南方丝绸之路的重开

Weigao was one of the famous Jie-dushi ( regional military commissioners ) of the Jiannan Xichuan ( located in today’s southern Si-chuan) in the Tang Dynasty. During the rule of Wei Gao, he successfully defeated the Tubo, and changed the Tang court’s submissiveness in the southwestern region and the fight between the Tang and Tubo along the southern line. He also restored the links between Yunnan and Xichuan including all the way to the Central Plains, and, as a result, the once closed Southern Silk Road was reopened. A further exploration and evaluation of Wei Gao’s actions and his influence on reopening the Southern Silk Road ought to be given. I. Wei Gao’s Alliance with the Nanzhao King-dom and Reopening the Southern Silk Road In 785 A. D. , Wei Gao arrived in Chengdu and was appointed Jiedushi of Jiannan Xichuan. The situation of Jiannan Xichuan at that time was very critical. After the Tianbao war, the Kingdom of Nanzhao, which had unified the area around Er-hai Lake with the support of the Tang in the past, turned against the Tang and publicly announced its alliance with the Tubo. The Nanzhao Kingdom, to-gether with the Tubo, struck the Tang in the south-western region. This shift not only put the Tang in a submissive position in the southwestern region, but also significantly influenced the relations be-tween the Tang and the Tubo. As the Jiedushi of Jiannan Xichuan, Wei Gao became a unique practitioner and actively promoted a joint strategy in Yunnan. After the Tang decided to make an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom, relevant actions were taken immediately. However because relations between the Nanzhao Kingdom and the Tang had been broken for many years, at the beginning, Wei Gao could only communicate through some of the tribal chiefs of the Dongman ( Eastern Barbarians) . Through several years of ef-fort and mutual contact, Wei Gao’s endeavors to make an alliance with the Nanzhao, at last, were effective. Wei Gao’s efforts to make an alliance with the Nanzhao certainly involved issues related to trans-portation between Xichuan and the area of Erhai Lake. During that period, the route between Xi-chuan and Nanzhao was not only under military threat from the Tubo, but it was also overseen by the tribes of the Dongman who supported the Tu-bo—this indicated that the line of communication was not in a normal situation. The Southern Silk Road was one of ancient China’s important land trade routes to overseas. In looking at relevant re-cords in the Shiji ( Records of the Historian ) , we can see that this route had been known by people in the Central Plains from at least the Qin and Han dynasties. It was called the“Shushen Dudao” dur-ing the Han dynasty, and the “Xi’er Tianzhu zhid-ao” in the Taizhong period of the Tang dynasty.“Xi’er” refers to Erhai Lake, which was called“Xi’er He” during that time; “Tianzhu”, i. e.“Shendu”, refers to present day India. Since the Qin and Han dynasties, there were two primary routes between Xichuan and the area of Lake Er-hai. One was the Shimendao, also called the Wuchidao or Rongzhoudao, which started from present Chengdu and went through present day Le-shan and Yibin. The other was the Qing Xidao, also called the Lingguandao, Songzhoudao or Qiongnan Yilu,which, started from present Cheng-du, and went through present day Ya’an, and Xichang. These two routes were also called the“North Route” and the“South Route” in the Yun-nan Zhi ( The History of Yunnan) compiled by Fan Cuo in the Tang Dynasty. These two were the main routes between Sichuan and Yunnan on the South-ern Silk Road in the Tang dynasty. In 794 A. D. , the Tang and the Nanzhao Kingdom swore an oath of alliance, and Wei Gao started his plans to reo-pen the routes. By making a comprehensive analy-sis of relevant historical records, we are certain that starting with a plan in the 8th century, and fol-lowing the realization of the alliance between the Tang and Nanzhao as part of the strategy for the Southwestern area, and, together with the success in the fight against the Tubo, the two main chan-nels between Sichuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Road were reopened as a result of the concern of Wei Gao at the beginning of the 9th century. II. The Basic Situation of the Route between Sichuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty and Its Historical Significance It was a long way from Xichuan to the area of Lake Erhai, and, moreover, the situation was also very complicated. Whenever the North Route or the South Route opened, it was not something that was completed immediately; it was a process. Al-though some sections of the road might be comple-ted initially, the opening of the entire route could not be completed within a short time. Through the records of Fan Cuo in his Yunnan Zhi, we can glean a general understanding of the basic situation regarding the reopening of the two main routes be-tween Sichuan and Yunnan along the Southern Silk Road in the Tang Dynasty. Seen from the records of Fan Cuo, there were courier stations along the South Route, so that travelers and their horses could have services and accommodation. It is very significant to note that in addition to the records of courier stations along the route managed by the Xichuan administration, the Yunnan Zhi also recorded that special translators were arranged for facilitating the contact and ex-change between the two sides, i. e. Xichuan and Nanzhao, after the route reached Ezhunling. This detail reflected Xichuan’s attention to the manage-ment of this route, but it also reflected the frequent contact between the people from the two sides of this route and the need for better communication. The road which started from Ezhunling was man-aged by the Nanzhao Kingdom. The situation of the North Route was quite different from the South Route. Based upon an analysis of the records found in the Yunnan Zhi, along the north route, there were not only high mountain, steep slopes, and winding roads, but the traveler also had to pass through many areas inhabited by the Wuman (Black Babarians). So, people were able to pass through the stations only after their words had been translated three or four times. Generally speaking, the conditions along the North Route were worse than those along the South Route. Therefore, al-though the reopening of the South Route was later than the North Route, people usually chose to pass through the South Route after it was reopened. It should be mentioned here that although Fan Cuo’s Yunnan Zhi was compiled during the early years of Xiantong Period in the Tang dynasty, the situation along the route and courier stations recorded in the book were probably not much different from those along the route during the time of Wei Gao. Al-though more than half a century of time had passed the road and courier stations along the South and North Routes might have only had some minor changes, and it was probably generally the same as in the past. Moreover it was unblocked for a long term due to the concern of the both sides. Another point that should be noted here is that although both the South and North Routes connecting Si-chuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Road in the Tang dynasty were managed by the administra-tions of Xichuan and Nanzhao separately, seen from the close relations and common demands of the two sides, the construction and management of these two important routes were combined through the negotiation of the two sides’ considerations and demands. As the major supporter for making the alliance with Nanzhao, Wei Gao should be the one who played an active role in this process. Because of the alliance between the Tang and the Nanzhao Kingdom the Tubo suffered a setback in the southwestern region, and they gradually re-treated to the north. Under this scenario, the channels of communication between Sichuan and Yunnan were unblocked, and communication be-tween the envoys from the Tang and Nanzhao be-came more frequent, the local trade developed, and the number of businessmen traversing Sichuan and Yunnan increased. Seen from the perspective of the development of Nanzhao, the frequent ex-changes between the artisans and traders from the two sides via the South and North Routes that ran between Sichuan and Yunnan promoted the eco-nomic and commercial development of Yunnan. In addition, there were many ethnic groups in the Nanzhao Kingdom. These included the Wuman, and Baiman ( white barbarians) . For several dec-ades,“more than a thousand” people from differ-ent ethnic groups went to Chengdu to study. This reflected that the reopening of the Southern Silk Road during the Tang dynasty played an important role in cultural transmission. On the other hand, training youth from the different ethnic groups liv-ing in the Nanzhao Kingdom also had a deep influ-ence on the cultural development of Yunnan. More important is that this action enhanced the commu-nication between the ethnic groups of Yunnan and the Central Plains. In addition, after reopening the road between Sichuan and Yunnan on the Southern Silk Route, the road continued through Nanzhao territory, crossed into the Myanmar-India route, and arrived in South and Southeast Asia. It could be said that Wei Gao’s reopening of the Southern Silk Road was not only helpful for communication between the people of Xichuan, the Central Plains and Yunnan, but it was also helpful for communi-cation between the Tang and the countries of South and Southeast Asia. It should be mentioned that Wei Gao’s reope-ning of the Southern Silk Road was conducted with-in the framework of an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom to attack the Tubo. Hence, speaking truthfully, reopening the road was not the main re-sponsibility of the Jiedushi of Xichuan, and was al-so not his main strategic goal. Under the serious situation faced by Jiannan Xichuan, Wei Gao’s main focus during that time was how to contact and make an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom so as to take military action against the Tubo. Even if he planned to reopen this road and took some action, it was conducted by targeting his military strategic action. However, reopening the Southern Silk Road could not be separated from the action of making an alliance with the Nanzhao Kingdom. Moreover, after reopening this road, it really pro-moted economic -cultural exchange and develop-ment along the road. Hence, we should give a full understanding and evaluation on Wei Gao’s histori-cal role in it.     

黑水城出土唐卡研究述略

本文对俄罗斯艾尔米塔什博物馆所藏科兹洛夫劫自额济纳旗黑水城的绘画作品的数量进行了统计 ,简要介绍了从俄苏时期到苏联解体以后近一个世纪俄罗斯学者对黑水城具有藏传风格的绘画———唐卡———的研究状况 ,并就近 5 0年间 ,特别是近 10年之内欧美学者对西夏唐卡研究的范围、研究方法等进行了述评。文章同时回顾了国内的唐卡研究状况 ,指出包括西夏唐卡在内的西夏藏传风格艺术研究仍是一片有待学者开拓的领域