"Taking full responsibility" should be emphasized in the control of population growth]

Since the establishment of a responsible production system in the countryside, the living standard of the general public has risen constantly, but a new problem in family planning has also occurred. A great many people believe that more male children will eventually provide more labor and thus more income. Consequently, there has been a gradual rise in the birth rate. A crucial problem which needs an immediate solution is how to match the population growth and agricultural production. As a responsible production system is established, an appropriate family planning system should also be established. Married couples of childbearing age should sign contracts concerning family planning and should follow regulations outlined in the contract. Contract violators should be punished with fines, and thoas who follow the contract should be offered economic rewards. Cadres and responsible officials should take full responsibility for reaching the goals set for their respective county, district, commune or brigade, and their people should be rewarded or punished according to their performance. Special care should be given to the old, handicapped, orphans and widows and those who suffer from illness. Households with only one child should be awarded and encouraged with additional benefits. Taking full responsibility is a concept which should be used extensively in agricultural development, production management, and family planning.     

Agricultural production responsibility system and the work of family planning in the rural area]

With the establishment of the agricultural production responsibility system, the entire agricultural management and economic system has undergone great changes, and family planning in rural areas has met with many difficulties. Because of this responsibility system, households with more manpower seem to become wealthy more rapidly than others. An existing belief among the rural population is that more children will provide a larger labor force and thus more income. Birth control and family planning are therefore becoming more difficult. In order to change existing beliefs, a comprehensive ideological education for peasants is needed so that they may understand the question of birth control from the viewpoints of national interests. Economic rewards and administrative restrictions may be used as necessary birth control measures. Agricultural production and family planning can be managed well if there is close contact and cooperation between the cadres and the masses. Extra care and benefits should be given to women of childbearing age who undergo birth control operations and agree to a single child in each household. Welfare programs for the masses, such as kindergartens and nursing homes must be established in order to reduce their worries. In addition, efforts are needed to study the new situation and solve new problems. The goal of controlling the rural population growth should be achiefed through practical work and experience.     

On the situation and tasks of current birth planning work]

This is the text of the closing speech delivered by the author at the 2nd Chinese National Symposium on Population Theories held on December 13, 1979. The meeting had been successful for several reasons, including the concern, support, and leadership of the State Council, provincial, and revolutionary committees. Under the leadership of the State Council, targets of natural population growth rates were established for 1980 and 1981. Financial rewards for couples producing only 1 child had been planned. Contraception, adequate child care, and eugenics were stressed. Attendants were urged to learn from Sichuan's successful experience. During 1979, a policy was established that advocates 1 child/couple and penalizes couples producing 3 children. Agreements were signed with the UN whereby China would receive US $50 million during 1980-1983 for equipment upgrading, education, and other related purposes. The goal for a 1% growth rate could not be achieved in 1979; the actual rate was probably about 1.2%. The major reasons for this failure could be attributed to traditional feudal concepts still prevalent among many Chinese as well as to organizational problems among birth planning units and technical problems in birth control. With goals of population growth set for 1980, and 1985 and zero growth at 2000, China would encounter tremendous difficulties in its efforts to achieve them. However, under the determination and leadership of the central government coupled with valuable experience over the past 30 years, these goals would be attainable.     

Acquiring a new birth outlook is an important content of school education]

Besides good administration and technical measures, a new birth outlook from the general public is also very important for all work on population control. Through education, the people will learn to transform their traditional birth outlook to a modern one, based upon the interests of the nation. All schools have the important mission of establishing a new birth outlook through the political, legal, moral, and scientific education of the next generation. Educational methods should be variable and active, step by step through all school levels. Different contents and measures should be taken to educate the elementary school students in order that they may understand national policy, the equality between male and female, and the need to obey laws and regulations. In secondary education, emphasis should be given to the knowledge of population science, general health hygiene, human sexuality, common sense in health care for young people, and the relationship between human lives and the natural environment. For college students, because they are close to marrying age, special attention should be given to the practice of late marriage, late child-bearing, birth control, population policy, and studies of population science. Scientists and educators should cooperate to develop a complete system of educational materials to be used at various educational levels. A new birth outlook among the young generation will be created as a result of school education.     

A gold key to initiate a new situation in family planning work]

Because of the popularization of a responsible agricultural production system, the livilihood of peasants has been improving greatly, while the demands and needs of the general public are also increasing at the same time. Still under the influence of the traditional belief of carrying on one's family line and emphasis on having male children, married people prefer to have more childre, and the birth rate is now rising again. In order to solve this new problem, we need to teach the peasants national policies on population, land utilization, and food supply. In order to initiate a new situation in family planning work, we need to control this "gold key" of ideological education and propaganda. The emphasis should be placed on ideological education for cadres at all levels as well as the general public in order that they may understand the Party's strategy. Education on the national strategy should be combined with material interests of the peasants, and reward and punishment in production should also be linked up with that of family planning. Social measures are needed to reduce economic burdens of the peasants, offer better treatment for single-child households, and provide adequate care for old and retired people. Family planning projects should be consolidated and improved. Scientific management, facilities and techniques for birth control, compensation for working personnel in family planning, and other practical problems deserve immediate attention and solution.     

Seven measures for population control announced in Guangzhou

On 7 October 1988, the Municipal Government of Guangzhou, China, announced the following Decision: "First, great efforts should be made to strengthen education on the situation and tasks of the family planning programme. Second, family planning work is included in the target responsibility system of leaders at all levels during their terms of office and whether it is good or bad for the fulfillment of their family planning tasks will be considered as one of the criteria for the assessment of cadres in their work to link up with rewards and punishments. Third, the current family planning policies must be resolutely and unswervingly carried out. For those units where family planning policies have not been well carried out and where family planning work has long been stagnant, competent authorities should send capable cadres to help them improve their work within a definite period of time. Fourth, the principle of 'three priorities' (i.e., priority of publicity and education to economic restriction, priority of contraceptive measures to induced abortions, and priority of day-to-day work to shock work) must be adhered to while technical service and work of transforming the backward situation in some places should be done. Fifth, the family planning organizations at all levels must be perfected and ranks of family planning workers be strengthened with the stress on those at the township, town, and street neighbourhood levels. Moreover, the family planning offices should be set up or full-time family planning workers be staffed for enterprises and undertakings in the cities. Sixth, funds for the family planning work must be guaranteed. Seventh, the management of family planning for [the] floating population must be strengthened and a management group for [the] floating population, which consists of representatives from the Municipal Government and departments concerned, must be established."     

Emphasizing ideological education, implementing birth control measures and carrying out family planning in an appropriate way]

Since the establishment of responsible production system, certain existing measures for family planning have lost their original effectiveness. At the same time, some changes in the peasants' minds concerning family planning have also taken place. Many peasant families, especially those which have no male child, wish to have more children. In order to solve this problem, family planning work should be done all over again from the lowest administrative level. Through correct population and ideological education, the general public may understand that there is a surplus of agricultural labor and a shortage of arable land at the present time. Secondly, birth control measures, family planning techniques, and training of medical personnel should be improved in order to serve the people better. A full-time working staff for family planning work should be increased so that they may work closely with local people and solve practical problems. In addition, nursing homes should be established and managed well in each commune. All such nursing homes should receive financial support from the State. In the this way, childless aging people may receive proper care after retirement. The worries of those single-child households may also be greatly reduced. The overall resistance met by family planning personnel is thus eliminated.     

Public Policy and Diffusion of Innovation

Marketers have traditionally studied diffusionof innovation with a primary focus on theindividual consumer as a unit of analysis, themajor types of findings being characteristicsof adopter categories and opinion leadership. We propose that this perspective is notadequate from a macromarketing perspective, inwhich the goals are to set public policy forsocietal good or to create an environment whichenables the diffusion of an innovation in a waythat no single marketer could do alone. Insetting public policy which can enable (orinhibit) diffusion of innovation for societalgood, a system composed of a mass socialinfrastructure, a competitive infrastructure,and a technical infrastructure should beconsidered.     

From the situation of our country, the stress in population control should be put on the rural areas]

The population problem exists around the world and each country shows some special characteristics. Of the 1 billion population of China, about 800 million people belong to the rural population. This number is very large and is increasing rapidly. The average age of the Chinese rural population is comparatively young and early marriage is widespread. A traditional Chinese belief in having many children is still popular. In addition, households with more children get more grain supplies according to the existing rationing system, and the concept of birth control is not popular because of the low educational and cultural levels. As a result, the growth rate of the rural population has remained high for a long time. In order to reach the goals of economic development and control of population growth by the end of this century, priority efforts have to be made to curb the increasing rural population. Ideological education for peasants should be strengthened in order to elevate their scientific and cultural levels and improve the overall quality of the rural population. Adequate birth control measures and health care should be popularized in rural areas. Cooperation between the peasants and the government will bring down the fast growing rate of increase in the rural population.     

发达国家公共养老金制度分析及其政策启示

本文对发达国家公共养老金制度进行了比较分析,发达国家公共养老金制度分为三个层次,第一层次是基础性养老金,一般由国家财政支付,第二个层次为补充性养老金,由雇主和雇员的缴费构成,第三个层次为国家养老储备金,由财政转移支付或国有资产构成。在发达国家的公共养老金计划中。国家、企业和个人有明确的责任划分。研究发现,中国基本养老保险制度存在设计上的缺陷,国家、企业和个人的责任划分不清晰,建议借鉴发达国家经验,理顺我国城镇基本养老保险体制的内在结构关系。     

How to carry out work on family planning after adopting production responsibility systems in rural areas]

After the Third Meeting of the Eleventh People's Congress, the entire responsibility for agricultural production was transferred to a lower level. Peasants in various areas have adopted the so called production responsibility system, and the phenomenon of an increased population rate has also appeared in some areas. In this article, the author discusses how to solve these problems created by the new situation. The 1st step is try to control population growth through socialist propaganda education, administrative measures, economic incentives and punishments, and family planning work. The 2nd step is to popularize the practice of having only 1 child per household in the rural areas. The 2nd and 3rd child in each family should be controlled and prohibited. This policy formulated by the Central Government should be carried out thoroughly. Families which follow the policy and have only 1 child should be encouraged with economic rewards, and those families which have 2 or more children should be punished economically. The 3rd step is to establish a national work team to be in charge of family planning and birth control. There should be an ideological unity among the nation's leadership. Party members and cadres should establish themselves as good examples for the people so that the population control work may become successful.     

For controlling population growth more scientifically]

The February 4, 1982 edition of the People's Daily published a directive of the State Council of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party regarding going a step further in the work of birth control. The spirit of the directive is to adapt to new situations and to push forward the work of birth control. Since the late 1970s, the success of birth control has been seen in the decline of the rate of natural population growth. Birth control work is affected by the new circumstances that rose with the effort to raise economic standards. For instance, the system of fixed responsibility in production that is being implemented in the villages benefits population control. That is, a developing agarian economy can alleviate the problem of supporting the aged, dispel the anxieties of future care of the elderly, and build up a dependable material basis. The spirit of the directive is based on objective truths, as is the control of population growth and the implementation of birth control work. If birth control can succeed in the countryside where 800 million peasants reside, then there is hope for attaining the goals of population control; but, there are differences between urban and rural settings, and the methods for population control cannot be the same for both situations. Nor can it be the same for China's minorities, whose population control programs must be tailored to their particular needs. Meeting the population needs of varying situations with different solutions is more scientific and realistic. The task of controlling population growth is formidable, but the following favorable conditions will facilitate the work: 1) party and governmental support is great, and population planning is an integral part of economic and social planning; 2) birth control organizations exist at all levels; 3) there exists high social and political consciousness among disciplined masses; and 4) there is a body of accumulated experience from which to draw.     

Comparative study on population transition in Japan and in Europe]

Over 6,000,000 Japanese military personnel and their families returned to Japan after WWII. Within 5 years, Japan's population increased by 11,000,000. However, within 10 years of Japan's 1949 removal of restrictions on abortions and sterilization, her birth rate dropped by half. At the same time, her economy stabilized and prospered. Japan's population had made the transition from a traditional pattern of reproduction to a modern pattern. Demographers saw it as unique, calling it a "population revolution." In reality, however, Japan's "population revolution" was not unique; it belonged to the same category as Europe's population transition. The birth rate in both Europe and Japan 1st reached a peak in the 1920s before declining rapidly through the decades to the 1960s. Japan's mortality rate showed a steady decline from 1860-80, when it began a sharp decline to the 1960s. In Europe, the mortality rate remained relatively level from 1860-1900, when its rapid decline began. While Japan's population transition was very similar to Europe's, it took less time for Japan, in large part because the Japanese government played a dominant role in its nation's industrialization. Once Japan became an industrialized and capitalistic nation, birth rates began to decline. But other factors contributed to this phenomenon as well: high literacy, urbanization, modern life styles, widespread knowledge of birth control, a strong government population policy, and an attitude that fewer births was better.     

人口和计划生育基层网络在基本公共服务中的作用研究

党的十七届五中全会通过的我国国民经济和社会发展第十二个五年规划中,明确提出推进基本公共服务均等化,加强社会管理能力建设,创新社会管理机制的工作要求。围绕相关概念的解析,结合我国人口和计划生育基层网络体系的功能、特点和优势,指出人口计生基层网络在新形势下必须完成其职能定位的转变,明确提出人口和计划生育基层网络在基本公共服务中的作用和服务内容,对于我国人口和计划生育基层网络的未来的功能定位和工作内容开展有一定的借鉴意义。     

Develop family planning work based on the reality of minority regions]

Pingtang County, Guizhou Province, is the home of the Bu-i and Miao minorities, who comprise 55% of the county's population. Since 1980, the county has vigorously followed family planning such that the rate of birth control rose from 20% in 1978 to 95% in 1985, the rate of natural growth went from 34/1000 to 3.6/1000, and the multiple child rate dropped to about 6% from 37.7% Following 5 years of work, the following observations are made: 1) The first step is to determine whether or not to have family planning because the common feeling about minorities is that by virtue of being a minority, family planning is not a serious issue. But family planning became a necessity when it was realized that population was growing faster than food production, creating problems in housing and public health, and in a dependence on the nation at large. 2) The initial step in family planning is ideological; a plan should be implemented whereby goals to reform old customs and thoughts (such as favoring males over females) are carried out by local leaders and cadres at all levels.     

促进我国流动人口基本公共卫生服务均等化的筹资机制研究

从筹资的角度分析制约我国地方政府向流动人口均等化供给基本公共卫生服务的原因,总结国外流动人口基本公共卫生服务筹资的经验,提出筹资机制改革建议。研究结果表明：我国现行的以常住人口为基数核定和安排基本公共卫生服务筹资责任的政策安排,给地方政府回避流动人口基本公共卫生服务的供给责任提供了制度空间,导致了流动人口公共卫生服务筹资“两头落空”的现象,影响了服务供给的均等化水平。我国须进一步强化中央政府的投入责任,保证流动人口基本公共卫生服务筹资的总体充足性,同时完善转移支付制度,增加对人口流入地的基本公共卫生服务经费补助金额,从而填补短期流动人口筹资政策的空白。     

Legal abortion and fertility in Maryland, 1960–1971

In the brief period between 1967 and 1971 about one-third of the state legislatures passed abortion reform bills, and in states such as Maryland the number of legal abortions soared. Maryland with its good reporting system for legal abortions, as well as its demographic representativeness, appears to offer an ideal "test situation" for assessing the impact on fertility of the new liberalization. Data on live births and reported induced abortions to residents of the state have been compiled and analyzed in an effort to interpret the recent changes in birth rates. Variables examined include maternal age, birth order, race, and legitimacy.Since 1968, Maryland, along with higher than national average abortion ratios, has experienced a rate of decline in fertility greater than that for the nation. In addition, most of the age and parity groups with high abortion ratios show fertility declines greater than those for groups not using abortion as extensively, Nevertheless, because a number of different factors simultaneously influence fertility, it is hazardous to make accurate cause-and-effect statements on the relationship of any single one of these to the observed change.     

Metal ring - a safe,effective, economical and convenient approach of fertility regulation

A survey of 25,000 women from 1450 villages in China has indicated that the metal ring is a safe, effective, and convenient method of contraception. The continuation rate was 79.3% after 1 year of use and 55.2% after 5 years of use. Factors that were most influential in continuation included insertion after menstruation, insertion during breastfeeding, age at 1st birth, insertion after abortion, level of the health care system, age at insertion, intensity of labor, number of births before insertion, and number of abortions before insertion. The expulsion rate ranged from 11.4-20.7%. The accidental pregnancy rate was 2.4-6.8%. Events such as expulsion and unintended pregnancy showed an association with parity, number of abortions, level of the health care system, and insertion during the breastfeeding period. No serious complications were noted in any of the women fitted wih metal rings.     

Initially analyzing the characteristics and evaluated indexes in rural areas and making relative policies]

20% of rural family planning (FP) programs in China have an unsatisfactory performance. A study was conducted in four townships with poor FP program performance in Pengxi County, Sichuan Province. Some common characteristics of these townships are as follows. Lack of concern about the FP program on the part of the local leadership. 2) Resistance of local people to FP communication and education; 96% of 426 families interviewed wanted to have 2 children, and only 3.7% wanted 1 child. 3) Lack of enforcement of the incentives and disincentives stipulated in the FP policy. 4) Lack of service delivery back-up in FP programs with a shortage of trained professional staff to provide clinical services and a shortage of the necessary medical facilities or equipment to meet the needs of FP service delivery. 5) The large number of early marriages, early child-births, extra-marital child-births without quota. At the present time, there is not specific quantitative standard to evaluate the FP program performance in a particular district. 3 indicators are appropriate for comparison of program performance. 1) Has the annual birth control target for the district been met? 2) The percentage of births with in the FP quota. Under 60% of births within the quota should be considered poor performance. 3) Over 20% of unplanned pregnancies reflect poor performance in the areas of birth control education, and contraceptive service delivery. The following are suggestions for solving the problems of poor program performance. 1) Community leaders should be evaluated on a per capita production output value rather than on total value. Their achievements should also be linked with their salary increases, promotions and bonuses. 2) One-child families should have a priority in receiving financial aids for development. 3) Governmental and non-government organizations should work together to promote the implementation of FP policies. 4) Service delivery systems should be strengthened by promoting population and FP education to families and in schools. Funding should be made available to increase the capability of birth control service delivery in terms of staff training, provision of equipment and housing and improvement in the quality of services. 5. Full use should be made of the potential of village leaders to take personal responsibility for every aspect of the FP.     

Population planning in Asia in the 1970s

Summary To what extent is family planning integrated with broader population planning in the countries of East Asia and South Asia? To what degree do these countries combine population planning with economic and social planning in their development plans? An attempt to answer these questions suggests that, despite variability from country to country in development goals and policy implementation, family planning has been largely separated from economic planning, and birth control programmes have often been substituted for intermediate and long-range population planning. Demographic factors have been treated as exogenous variables rather than as integral parts of social-economic-demographic plans. Such comprehensive planning is difficult for both technical and political reasons, but in any case is unlikely to be achieved so long as family planning and population planning continue to be confused.