An Intercultural Competence Model of Strategic Public Relations Management in the Peru Mining Industry Context

This study develops and tests an intercultural competence model of strategic public relations management in the Peruvian mining industry. The model proposes that public relations practitioners' trait-level intercultural competence (empathy, open-mindedness, and flexibility) affect their perceptual-level competence (anxiety and uncertainty management), which in turn influence their behavioral-level competence (public relations practices) and the consequent relational quality with the publics. Structural equal modeling was used to analyze the data from 90 practitioners with rich intercultural public relations experiences. Results indicated that trait competence components worked differently in reducing practitioners' uncertainty and anxiety. Such distress reduction enhanced the use of symmetrical and two-way public relations. Finally, symmetrical public relations and lowered anxiety increased practitioners' perceptions of trust and control mutuality in the relationships their organizations had with the publics. The model's theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The use of the internet by ten South African non-governmental organizations—a public relations perspective

Practitioners using the internet in their public relations efforts often do not use the interactive features of the medium to their fullest potential. This article explores the interactive nature of the internet by applying the two-way symmetrical model of public relations to the web sites of 10 South African non-profit, non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The findings confirm that managing a web site successfully requires more than technical knowledge. Much more important is a sound understanding of communication within an organization, especially with regard to public relations. An understanding and practice of the two-way symmetrical model would optimize the communicative use of an organizational web site.     

Fundraising encroachment on public relations: A clear and present danger to effective trustee leadership

When fundraising encroachment occurs, strategic publics who can affect a charitable organization's success and survival are rarely brought to the attention of trustees because public relations practitioners are denied access to these leaders, and the manager who does have access—the fundraiser—is trained and rewarded to concentrate on donor publics. A national survey documents fundraising encroachment in five of the six major types of charitable organizations. Although only 23 percent of the respondents (N = 175) reported structural encroachment, 40 percent agreed that the senior fundraisers in their organizations had more say in policy decisions than the senior public relations officers. Small but significant correlations were found between encroachment and the extent to which the public relations department has the knowledge and expertise to practice two-way models of public relations and communications support.     

Tornado warning: Understanding the National Weather Service’s communication strategies

This study explores the National Weather Service’s communication through a multi-sited rapid ethnography that extends the fully functioning society theory. National Weather Service field offices do not employ public information officers. Instead, forecasters predict the weather, craft messages, and build relationships with their publics. Scholars have called for public relations research that examines messages, including how crisis communication can help publics cope. Additionally, scholars have noted that all organizations need public relations, even if they do not employ formal public relations personnel. In our study, forecasters emphasized the need to build their publics’ tornado threat awareness and provided strategies to make weather science accessible. Forecasters discussed a variety of message strategies including avoiding fear appeals, humanizing the organization, and visualizing risks. Forecasters also built relationships with active publics through soliciting weather spotters and empowering them to prepare others for severe weather. Overall, findings expand knowledge about how organizations can employ strategic public relations to benefit society, thereby extending fully functioning society theory.     

Image and Symbolic Leadership: Using Focus Group Research to Bridge the Gaps

Through an exploration of the scholarly and professional literature, this article investigates the concepts of symbolic leadership and organizational image. A critical analysis of the literature establishes that symbolic leaders, especially chief executive officers (CEOs), may operate either symmetrically or asymmetrically. As leader and spokesperson, the CEO personifies the company to its key constituencies. Effective leaders give people power. This empowerment of strategic publics, both external and internal, suggests a symmetrical world view. It replaces the asymmetrical assumptions more characteristic of the autocratic leadership espoused in the management theory of the 1950s. A modest case study of focus group research illustrates the role of public relations in exploring, defining, and communicating image. This counseling or managerial role is critical in helping the organization be, rather than seeming to be—a key philosophical tenet of contemporary public relations. The theoretical frame for this article is Dervin's (1983, 1990, 1991) gap perspective, which suggests that such discontinuities are inherent in human interaction. Because focus groups also may provide insight into how to reconcile any gaps employees or other publics perceive between the image and the reality of the organization, it suggests more of a symmetrical than asymmetrical model.

Senior management's role is to personify the organization externally to customers & others—but also internally to the "family." (pr reporter, 1991)     

Imperative for an Arab model of public relations as a framework for diplomatic,corporate and nongovernmental organization relationships

This paper advocates a morally/ethically defensible “organic theory” of public relations that is in opposition to the public relations literature that predominantly suggests that only those publics that have direct consequences for the organization are publics with whom public relations practitioners should deal. A biological metaphor can be used in supporting this “organic” theory of public relations in which the organization is an organ and society is a body as a whole.This paper concludes that the process of public relations, as well as the outcomes, is critically important in maintaining a metabolic balance and harmony within society itself—a requisite for the health and well-being of nation-states, corporations and nongovernmental organizations. Much of this process involves communication as a ritual, rather than communication as transmission of information; it involves interpersonal communication, rather than mass communication. It involves relationship-building as opposed to persuasion. Much of this process has been found traditionally in Arab culture, and these rich traditions should be recognized and examined for their utility and value in developing an Arab model of public relations to help resolve the plethora of 21st Century issues that threaten global stability and ultimately the well-being of all cultures and societies.     

Public engagement with nonprofit organizations on Facebook

Explicating Facebook's engagement features, this study explored whether organizational message strategies based on the four models of public relations have an impact on the different levels of public engagement. The study found that publics demonstrate high levels of engagement with organizational messages when two-way symmetrical communication is used, compared to public information or two-way asymmetrical models. The study also provided practical implications for nonprofit practitioners to engage with publics via social media.     

Investor Relations: Two-Way Symmetrical Practice

Although public relations claims investor relations as one of its specializations, scholars have paid little attention to it and practitioners historically have been divided between finance and public relations. A national survey of 145 members of the National Investor Relations Institute and the Public Relations Society of America's Financial Communications Section tested models and dimensions of practice to build theory. Results show that such investor relations officers predominantly practice the two-way symmetrical model and their work is characterized by the dimensions of symmetrical effects and—to some degree—two-way communication. Practitioners do not differ by their orientation to either finance or corporate communication/public relations. This study is the first to find the predominant practice of the normative model across its sample, thereby refuting long-standing criticism that the symmetrical model is a utopian ideal. The two-way symmetrical model does exist in the real world, and it can be found in the bastion of capitalism—publicly owned corporations in the United States.     

When giving means taking: Public relations,sponsorship, and morally marginal donors

It is generally considered a positive social action to form relationships of support between organizations and publics. In public relations terms, such connections can lead to beneficial outcomes for both the organization, in terms of reputation and attributions of social responsibility, and publics, in terms of the ability to meet their own goals through financial contributions. It is less easy to understand what happens when these relationships detract from society holistically. In this paper the Tattersall's organization, Australia's “largest” privately owned company, is used as an example. Tattersall's has a history of community involvement, sponsorship, and benevolence. However, its sole business is gambling, and hence vulnerable gamblers fund its charitable donations. This article uses the writings of Pierre Bourdieu to discuss ethical practice and professionalism as well as the dynamics of sponsorship dependence of vulnerable groups. It suggests that although an underused theorist on the edges of mainstream public relations theory, Bourdieu's ideas have much to contribute to our understanding of professional practice.     

Toward a dialogic theory of public relations

This essay clarifies the concept of dialogue in public relations. As public relations theory and research move toward a two-way relational communication model, many scholars and practitioners are increasingly using the terms “dialogic” and “dialogue” to describe ethical and practical approaches to public relations. The concept of dialogue is deeply rooted in philosophy and relational communication theory. Its inclusion in the public relations vocabulary is an important step toward understanding how organizations can build relationships that serve both organizational and public interests. This essay traces the roots of dialogue, identifies several over-arching tenets, and provides three ways that organizations can incorporate dialogue into their communication with publics.     

Identifying and Responding to Activist Publics: A Case Study

Activist groups are strategic publics because they constrain an organization's ability to accomplish its goals and mission. Activists create issues; they appeal to government, the courts, or media for litigation, regulation, or other forms of pressure. As a result, research on activism has become one of the most important domains of public relations research. I begin this article with the premise that public relations practitioners must develop sensitivity to activists, he able to identify activist publics before they become active, and develop communication strategies to foster mutual understanding with them. The results are reported of a case study of environmental activism against a multinational company working in the Central American country of Belize. The organization failed to identify activist publics at the beginning of its Belize project and made no attempt to communicate with them. The activists then went elsewhere for information and escalated overt pressure on the organization. Media coverage, however, had little effect on the activists because they had their own specialized communication networks and newsletter. The organization then used press agentry and public information models of public relations to counteract the activists; as a result, the pressure escalated. I also found evidence that the organization became more successful with activists when it used a symmetrical model of public relations during a radio debate.     

A Case Study of Aston Villa Football Club

This article conceptualizes a Homo Narrans paradigm for public relations by combining symbolic convergence theory (SCT) and situational theory. SCT results in theory-based data for designing message content but not the relevant publics to target messages. Situational theory identifies relevant publics and when messages should be directed to the publics but not the message content. Combined, SCT and situational theory develop a Homo Narrans paradigm that views the exchange of messages between an organization and public as forms of stories. A Homo Narrans paradigm allows researchers and practitioners to advance public relations as an applied social science.     

Activism and the Limits of Symmetry: The Public Relations Battle Between Colorado GASP and Philip Morris

Litigation has forced tobacco companies like Philip Morris to disclose more than 7 million internal documents, including previously confidential public relations plans. We draw from this archive, as well as from activist materials, to demonstrate that, despite vigorous industry efforts to thwart them, activists in this case employed strategies of values advocacy and inoculation and capitalized on economic benefits to persuade publics. This watershed case poses continued challenges for the 2-way symmetrical or mixed-motive theoretical model of public relations. Accounting for public relations activism and understanding its voice in influencing contemporary public debate requires that scholars move beyond this widely accepted model that stresses compromise between activists and organizations. An alternative rhetorical theory of activist public relations is posited to account for groups that refuse to accommodate opponents.     

Strategic Thinking about Employee Communication Behavior (ECB) in Public Relations: Testing the Models of Megaphoning and Scouting Effects in Korea

In public relations, employees are regarded as one of the most important strategic constituencies because they interact with external publics on a daily basis. However, employees' communication behavior (ECB) has not been extensively researched in public relations. The purpose of this research was to conceptualize and develop concrete measurements of ECB that can help theoretical development and strategic planning in public relations. In particular, the study identified two unique aspects of ECB—megaphoning and scouting—that refer to employees' voluntary efforts to collect and circulate strategic information externally and internally. In addition, a new concept, microboundary spanning, based on the two aspects of ECB is conceptualized. In this study, symmetrical internal communication and employee-organization relationships were posited as antecedent variables to the proposed ECB variables. A survey research was conducted with 300 employees in different types of organizations in Korea.     

Dialogic Engagement: Clarifying Foundational Concepts

The principle of engagement underlies much of the relational and organization–public communication research. Unfortunately, the principle of engagement suffers from a lack of clarity in the public relations literature. Use of the term engagement varies widely. This article clarifies the principle of engagement by positioning it within dialogue theory. We posit a conceptualization of engagement as: Engagement is part of dialogue and through engagement, organizations and publics can make decisions that create social capital. Engagement is both an orientation that influences interactions and the approach that guides the process of interactions among groups.     

A social capital approach to improving public relations’ efficacy: Diagnosing internal constraints on external communication

This article extends Heath's (2006) concept of fully functioning society theory (FFS) and argues that public relations can be used as a force to enhance collective social capital in communities. To serve this purpose, however, the effectiveness of an organization to serve its external publics is often dependent on the status and relationships the public relations function has developed within the organization. This paper provides a network analysis of a government agency in Jordan that illustrates the relationship between internal organizational social capital and the potential problems for establishing external relationships with publics. Implications for public relations research methods and theory are also discussed.     

Corporate public relations dynamics: Internal vs. external stakeholders and the role of the practitioner

Most public relations research advocates for stronger organization-public relationships and the implementation of dialogic theory to advance the practice and elevate the status of the public relations practitioner. However, this study reveals that internal relationship dynamics can prevent corporate public relations practitioners from carrying out this function of the public relations role. Twelve weeks of observation and eleven interviews were conducted at a Fortune 1000 technology company to gain insights on how corporate PR practitioners build relationships with external publics, to gauge practitioners’ orientation to dialogue, and to identify challenges to external relationship building. Results show that internal relationship management is a prerequisite to corporate public relations practitioners’ success in developing mutually beneficial relationships with key publics. These findings have implications for both the theory and practice of public relations especially when considering the discussion of the technician versus strategic manager role of public relations and the advancement of the field to a professional status.     

Matching Public Relations Research to the Problem: Conducting a Special Focus Group

Many public relations practitioners use focus groups in their practice, but most consider the technique merely a complement to survey research. In this article, I show that focus groups can stand alone as a research technique and that they can be used both for formative and evaluative research. I review literature about focus groups from several fields and provide an overview of the nature, value, applications, procedures, and limitations of focus groups. In addition to being a research technique, focus groups can provide a means of two-way communication between organizations and publics. Used this way, focus groups are particularly valuable because they uncover why people think what they think and make possible unbridled conversations about sensitive issues, even among strangers. A case in which focus groups were used for such two-way comnmunication—to help providers of mental health services understand the stigma affecting the mentally ill consumers they serve—is analyzed. The success of the experiment suggests that focus groups also can be used for communication about similar taboos such as homosexuality, AIDS, cancer, or eating disorders.     

Bring publics back into networked public relations research: A dual-projection approach for network ecology

This essay critiques the absence of publics in networked public relations research, and proposes the dual-projection approach as a solution to simplify and analyze the multi-mode public relations network ecology (Yang & Taylor, 2015). Compared to most previous studies that employ organization-centric networks where ties stand for hyperlinks, collaborations, or coalitions, the new approach projects organization-public relationships and public-public relationships onto interorganizational ties. By doing so, it (1) brings publics back into networked public relations research; (2) presents organizations and publics—the two most important subjects of public relations research—equally in the same network, (3) drives literature further away from a dyadic view of relationship management, and (4) constitutes one of the first techniques that can analyze direct and timely consequences of organziation-public relationships in the network ecology. To demonstrate the new approach, the network of publics overlap is introduced and applied to US-based LGBTQ advocacy groups. The essay also discusses the theoretical inquiries needed to further dual-projection networks, and invites scholars to create novel ways to incorporate publics into their network studies using dual projection.     

Memory for Investor Relations Messages: An Information-Processing Study of Grunig's Situational Theory

Marketing managers have used segmentation techniques to divide mass markets into specialized markets for some time, and many public relations practitioners have adopted the same techniques for their practices. Most marketing techniques segment markets more effectively than publics, however, and thus have limited value in public relations. Few public relations scholars have developed segmentation techniques for publics that are comparable to those used to segment markets in marketing. Grunig and Childers (1988) developed a situational theory of publics that has been tested and used widely by academic researchers. The theory segments publics by the activeness and passiveness of their communication behaviors and the extent to which their behavior affects organizations. Grunig maintained that active publics are more likely to process information actively and to remember it than are passive publics. This study uses the context of investor relations to test the cognitive effects of Grunig's theory. In doing so, it applies cognitive psychological methods of experimentation rarely used in public relations research and tests the effects of involvement, problem recognition, and constraint recognition on two types of memory performance. Differences were found in cued recall and recognition memory; the implications of these differences are discussed.