Public Engagement in Supportive Communication Behaviors toward an Organization: Effects of Relational Satisfaction and Organizational Reputation in Public Relations Management

The purpose of this article is to offer thoughts on the future research directions for public relations scholars. More specifically, 2 areas of potential research are offered: the balance zone model of public relations management and an outcome-based model of public relations. I argue that we need to move well beyond the current 2-way thinking about publics and begin to reconceptualize public relations in a multidimensional perspective, where dialogue, collaboration, and negotiation with multiple stakeholders and stakeseekers occur simultaneously. A new role of the public relations practitioner is to maintain an equilibrium that satisfies the mutual interest of all parties.     

All glamour, no substance? How public relations majors and potential majors in an exemplar program view the industry and function

Studies in public relations often conclude that the field is misunderstood [Kopenhaver, L. L. (1985). Aligning values of practitioners and journalists. Public Relations Review, 11(1), 34–42; Stacks, D. W., Botan, C., & Turk, J. V. (1999). Perceptions of pubic relations education. Public Relations Review, 25, 9–29] and misrepresented in media [Spicer, C. (2000). Public relations in a democratic society: Value and values. Journal of Public Relations Research, 12(1), 115–130]. Public relations professionals themselves often do not know what is involved in or support public relations education [Wright, D. K., & Turk, J. V. (2007). Public relations knowledge and professionalism: Challenges to educators and practitioners. In E.L. Toth (Ed.), The future of excellence in public relations and communication management: Challenges for the next generation (pp. 571–588). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum]. Both the special issue (Public Relations Review, 1999) on public relations education and a following study published in this journal [Bowen, S. A. (2003). I thought it would be more glamorous: Preconceptions and misconceptions of public relations among students in the principles course. Public Relations Review, 29, 199–214] argued that public relations majors often do not realize what is involved in the academic discipline or the professional field. This research builds on the findings of those studies to ask: are public relations educators doing any better in communicating the core competencies, responsibilities, knowledge requirements, skills, and abilities of the discipline and the public relations major? Through the use of 10 focus groups across majors at a top research university, we can see that little is known about public relations among non-majors, but public relations majors can articulate the requirements and functions of the field. Several primary areas of confusion emerged about public relations related to: marketing or promotion, spinning the truth, image, and public relations as a career choice. These ideas show a critical lack of transparency in public relations. Credibility of the public relations function is hampered by this failure to communicate about the functions and core competencies of the field. Implications for both the public relations practice and for public relations education are discussed.     

A bibliographic study of public relations in Spanish media and communication journals, 2000–2012

This study analyses the trends and visibility of research on public relations in the most relevant Spanish media and communication journals between the years 2000 and 2012. Bibliometrics and content analysis are used to show the reduced presence of articles on public relations in these publications. A trend towards gender parity in authorship is confirmed in the sample, as well as a plurality of universities and a variety of research themes. The study also proves preference for generic questions rather than for specialised topics. Another finding is that almost one fourth of the specific articles on this discipline do not contain the term “public relations”. This can hint towards the need to have a specific high-impact publication on public relations to bring together and provide visibility to the contributions of researchers in this field.     

Overcoming Ethnocentrism: The Role of Identity in Contingent Practice of International Public Relations

Based on literature from the contingency theory of public relations and psychocultural conflict theory, this study explored how multinational corporations (MNCs) are practicing public relations in Korea, and what contingency factors impact MNCs' stances in conflict situations. Interviews of leaders in public relations agencies whose major clients are MNCs found that "fear factor" plays a critical role in MNCs taking more accommodative stances in conflict situations. MNCs tend to move toward accommodative stances based on their fear of Korean media and local culture, regardless of the presence of 2-way symmetrical communications with publics. More specifically, accommodation seemed to be enacted through 1-way communication (i.e., local publics' claims) and MNCs' fear of media, local culture, or publics. This finding implies the following: First, 1-way communication may not always result in advocacy as is claimed in Western cultures, but may actually lead to accommodation. Second, indigenous local cultural dimensions should be explored in examining international public relations practices.     

Public relations and place branding: Friend,foe or just ignored? A systematic review

Communication about places is typically termed place branding and is generally situated within the marketing discipline. However, in practice, place branding shares many commonalities with public relations. It involves relationships with a wide range of stakeholders, reputation management, and communication campaigns that involve no direct sale of a product. While some have noted the parallels between place branding and public relations, the intersection of these two fields has not been reviewed empirically. This study examines the relationship between public relations and place branding by exploring how scholars in each field have conceptualised and represented the other in their research publications. A systematic review of 378 journal articles, published from 1988 to 2018 in 18 selected journals from both fields, was conducted. This research shows that while there is a significant conceptual crossover between the two fields and they work together in practice, the place branding literature largely treats public relations as a promotional tactic rather than a disciplinary body of knowledge. Conversely, outside of public diplomacy research, public relations has shown little interest in places and place communication, and there is limited research applying public relations theories and concepts to places. This paper adds to current knowledge on the interdisciplinarity of public relations theories and concepts and how public relations is perceived outside its own field and suggests new possibilities for interdisciplinary research on place communication.     

Mandating dialogue? International perspectives on differences between theory and practice

This paper replicates an Australian study (Lane, 2018) into how public relations practitioners understand dialogue in practice. The original study found practitioners believed they were carrying out dialogue legally required by government, but what they were doing was no more than two-way communication. It also found practitioners’ operating environments meant they could never actually undertake dialogue, even if mandated to do so. These empirically-based insights revealed the existence of gaps between theory and practice in dialogue in public relations. The study was repeated in Austria to determine if these findings were consistent internationally, and to consider what this might mean for the place of dialogue in public relations. Examples of so-called mandated ‘dialogue’ provided by Austrian public relations practitioners in semi-structured interviews were analyzed using Kent and Taylor’s (2002) five principles of dialogue. This analysis showed that despite the Austrian practitioners’ familiarity with the work of Habermas on dialogue, the mandated communication they carried out was not dialogue. The Austrian experience also showed that the nature of the underlying context of mandated communication—the need to achieve agreement between parties in varying levels of conflict; and conducting communication within boundaries of time and non-negotiable pre-existing decisions—meant dialogue could never occur. Comparing the two studies demonstrated high levels of similarity between the countries’ results, which we hope can provide the starting point for the development of a longitudinal and international perspective. This paper concludes that the place of dialogue in the theory and practice of public relations is dependent on the education of practitioners in its implementation; and a re-thinking of the role of the aspirational in situations where it can never be attained.     

Moral conflict and dynamic equilibrium: Public relations as strategic conflict management

In the literature review and proposed theoretical models, the author argues that we often engage in advocacy in public relations on behalf of causes we hold dear, much like a strong defender on a soccer field becomes physical in defending the goal without violating explicit rules or our sense of what is right and appropriate in a competitive world. The author presents this image of an athlete contending in fair competition as a metaphor for a rejection of canonized thinking about accommodation in public relations in favor of public relations as strategic conflict management. This research is offered to continue the discussion in the field of public relations from the contingency theory of strategic conflict management and consider the ethical challenges faced by public relations practitioners in an ongoing cycle of conflict. This article is included in the special issue on the contingency theory of strategic conflict management.     

A postmodern view of public relations: Sign and reality

This essay looks at postmodernisn as a critical theory to give some insight into modern public relations practice. A critical view of the signs and symbols of a culture allow one to see the allocation of power and the dominant ideology. Public relations practitioners can be called symbolmakers if one considers their work is largely word and image.The case here is the 1990 Hill and Knowlton client, Citizens for a Free Kuwait. It was the H & K involvement with this client that produced the testimony before Congress that led to the US commitment to war against Iraq.The media theory of Jean Baudrillard serves as the cultural studies paradigm in this essay. His postmodernist theory of simulacra, illustrates the kind of society in which the signs of the media become their own reality, and do not stand for anything. They generate reality for themselves; they become the reality. That is what happened in the H & K case since the testimony before Congress was never substantiated even though that testimony, initiated by the H & K public relations firm, became the catalyst for US involvement in the war. This article uses the postmodernist insight from Baudrillard to argue that the signs and symbols demanded by media are their own reality.Public relations practitioners can manipulate the image because they know the importance people place on signs and symbols in the culture. But, since media technology today gives us the facts as presented simply because they are presented and have little or no reference to truth, one could pose the serious question of whether the field of modern public relations practice must today and in the future be held to even greater accountability and tighter scrutiny.Mickey is Professor of Communication Studies at Bridgewater State College. He recently published a book on public relations theory called Sociodrama: An Interpretive Theory for the Practice of Public Relations.     

What does learning by listening bring to citizen engagement? Lessons from a government program

In public relations research, the concept of engagement is often theorized but seldom observed in practice. This research focuses on what public leaders learn when they undertake actions centered on learning by listening to society to implement governmental citizen engagement programs. Taking an inductive grounded approach to data analysis which draws on tools and methods of grounded theory as well as including a review of key concepts from public relations literature, a reflexive analysis of an action learning intervention involving the members of a provincial government was conducted. Results show that, when reflecting on interaction with stakeholders of the program, government members: increase their knowledge about both sides of the public organization-society relationship; become more sensitive to what listening is and implies, and, hence, more supportive of two-way communication; are challenged about the authenticity of the motivations behind their listening; become more aware of ways in which they work to build social capital; and, subsequently, increase their willingness to act together with society. This paper shows that reflection on the real implementation of engagement programs gives policy makers a better understanding of normative assumptions, and hence it instantiates public relations theories and concepts about engagement. By identifying acting-by-listening as integral to citizen engagement, it presents implications for the study and practice of public relations in public sector organizations.     

Paradox in Public Relations: Why Managing Relating Makes More Sense Than Managing Relationships

This article applies research on paradox, semantics, and theories of groups and logical types to public relations, particularly the concept of relationship management. Paradoxes create tension and are often produced by semantic disturbances resulting from errors in logical typing. Communication is inherently paradoxical. The article contends that progress in public relations practice and scholarship has been inhibited by a failure to recognize or reconcile paradoxes associated with popular concepts, such as relationship management, mutually beneficial relationships, and symmetrical communication. Such concepts breach levels of communication to create logical fallacies and place practitioners into a double bind of promising more than they can deliver without resorting to coercion and manipulation. The article introduces Group Theory and the Theory of Logical Types, and suggests that public relations reframe relationship management with relating management, a practices more consistent with Kant's humanity imperative.     

The Art of Leading and Following – A Workplace Tango

This article describes my experiences of leading a commissioned child mental health service through a process of change in my role as manager. The article uses the metaphor of the Argentine tango to conceptualize my efforts to implement leadership in my work. I look at the influence of the music, the relationship between leadership and followership, and the idea of mutual presence to draw out aspects of my experience. In so doing, I relate theory to practice and bring together various theories of leadership in a creative synthesis. The article draws away from realist notions of management theory to ask how it is that we perform leadership. It suggests that we do so by the provision of an ‘intelligible formulation’ of chaotic events. This can be reached through the reflective understanding of the nature of the work. It can also be striven toward through creative acts of ‘discernment’ of the practices of the agency. These acts are fostered through the distribution of leadership that simultaneously dissolves yet persists. The need for mutual presence is highlighted and the role of leadership outside the immediate circle of authority is examined. The use of the Argentine tango as a metaphor draws together these various strands and provides a clear conceptual framework in this autoethnographic article.     

Public relations as “practice:” applying the theory of Alasdair MacIntyre

Public relation’s search for a unifying theory may be fulfilled through application of Alasdair MacIntyre’s concept of a “practice,” a very specific and value-laden concept. This article explores what it would mean to be a public relations practice in MacIntyre’s concept of the term and argues that such an approach to public relations is of value for the field.     

Why practitioners do (not) apply crisis communication theory in practice

Twenty-five in-depth interviews with Belgian crisis communication practitioners were conducted to examine the gap between theory and practice. Crisis communication has become an important research area within public relations. Several studies have resulted in theories and guidelines regarding the effective use of communication during organizational crises. Unfortunately, these findings are not always put into practice. This study examines to what extent public relations practitioners apply theory in practice during crises and why. The findings offer an opportunity to formulate potential ways in which we can bridge the scholar-practitioner divide in public relations, through guidelines for both scholars and practitioners.     

Professional blinders? The novel as an eye-opener in organizational analysis

ABSTRACT

Scholarly textbooks often follow a logic where suitable empirical cases are selected to illustrate the theoretical and analytical points that we as scholars want to make. But what would happen if we would do the opposite: build a textbook on a novel written by a novelist for such purpose and let the theories explain the actions and emotions of fictional characters? In this article, we share and reflect upon our experiences of co-authoring a textbook in organization theory together with a professional novelist. We argue that the novel can function as an eye-opener in organizational analysis, forcing us to look beyond more static and rationalistic perspectives on organizations as well as the stereotypes of such. We build and relate our experiences to the growing literature about using fiction in scholarly work and discuss the potential of such genre-bending work when we bring in flesh and blood into the analyses.     

Public Relations Expertise and Organizational Effectiveness: A Study of U.S. Hospitals

A national survey of 191 heads of public relations departments in hospitals measured the departments' expertise or knowledge to practice excellent public relations, as defined by recent research. Utilizing 2 scales original to the study, correlations showed strong and significant relationships between organizational effectiveness and departments with high potential to practice the 2-way symmetrical model, enact the manager role, and participate in strategic planning. Analysis further showed that traditional communication craft, as characterized by 1-way models and the technician role, is a foundation for public relations excellence. Findings can be used to help resolve the current crisis faced by hospitals.     

What do we know about government public relations (GPR)? A systematic review of GPR in public relations literature

Despite the importance of public relations within local, national, and international government organizations, government public relations (GPR) is still an understudied field in public relations research when compared to its corporate and nonprofit counterparts and has been critiqued for lacking theoretical development (Liu & Horsley, 2007). To present the accumulated knowledge about GPR, this study used content analysis and bibliometric network analysis to systematically review 155 articles published in key public relations journals from 1976 to 2021. Our findings illustrate the status of GPR scholarship in terms of publication trends, authorship, research contexts, research topics, theoretical knowledge structure, methodological approaches, and ethical considerations. Findings suggest that GPR is a fast-growing field attracting international and multidisciplinary scholarly interests; yet has not been clearly defined and theorized. With strong theoretical roots in relationship management, GPR has the potential to develop context-relevant theories capturing the distinctive relational dynamics in various government communication situations. This study proposes a work-in-progress definition of GPR, identifies critical research gaps, and suggests future research directions to assist GPR in developing into a distinct and promising subfield of public relations research.     

Organizing community: Activist public relations as place-making

This conceptual essay develops a renewed concept of community in public relations scholarship and practice—one re-centering activism and physical place. To do so, it delves into the writing and advocacy of two trailblazing women who dedicated their lives and work to empowering and protecting their communities: Grace Lee Boggs and Jane Jacobs. By connecting their approaches with existing public relations scholarship around community, activism, and place, the authors present a set of place-making communicative approaches for community activist practice in addition to theoretical development around what Boggs (2000) refers to as “place-based civic activism” (p. 19)—the work of finding and harnessing a shared neighborhood identity to connect and empower local residents as citizens. Seeing community and activism through this lens points toward the complex, living, and evolving ecology of communities (Jacobs, 1961, 2000), and positions public relations and activist communication as crucial tools for place-making.     

Opportunities for public relations research in public health

While communication researchers have developed a solid body of knowledge in the health field, we know little about the activities of public relations practitioners in public health bodies. This is unfortunate, because public health bodies at the federal, state, and local level have faced considerable criticism for what amounts to poor public relations. Public relations scholarship and practice have much to offer the field of public health in helping public health bodies meet their challenges. In order for public relations scholars to assist public health bodies, however, scholars first must fill a void in the research by investigating the public relations functions of public health bodies. The author suggests six avenues of public relations research in the field of public health.     

Re-examining the economic roots of public relations

The present global financial/economic crisis affects virtually the whole world and has brought to light a neglected economic context in public relations. To anyone familiar with the field's early history, it is obvious that a large part of that history intertwines with the long struggle between corporate, purely economic, interests and the need to apply public relations to combat public hostility and to gain public favour. This article works with both functional and critical approaches to engage with the particular relevance that the economic context of public relations holds in times of economic downturn. In referring to economic context, it includes the following issues: the economic roots of public relations practice in the historical context, the interactions between public relations theory and theories of economics and political economy, and the importance of economics to public relations practitioners.     

Challenging assumptions of international public relations: When government is the most important public

To learn more about international public relations it is important to explore the assumptions underlying each nation's practice. Through such analysis, we learn that many of the assumptions that guide Western theories and practices are not applicable in other regions of the world. This article examines one assumption—that the practice of public relations targets a variety of key organizational publics. In many developing nations it is government officials rather than the general public who are of greatest importance to effective public relations. If government is the most important public in developing nations, then this relationship will influence the practice of public relations.Maureen Taylor is an Assistant Professor of Communication at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Michael Kent is an Assistant Professor of Communication at SUNY-Fredonia in Fredonia, New York.