On the relationship between population and education]

The social and historical development of population and education is subject to the restriction of the means of production. Although it is not the major factor in determing the direction of social development, it has a great impact on social progress and historical development. The scale and level of educational development are not only influenced by social and economic conditions but are also related to the scale of population growth and the number of people who receive an education. In studies of the relationship between the population and education, special attention should be given to the impact of population growth upon education as well as the everlasting influence of education upon the population structure and social mobility. Since 1949, because of a rapid population growth, the existing educational system in China has suffered severe damage and destruction. There have been an insufficient number of schools and a shortage of funds for education for quite some time, and the population growth has caused great pressure on education. The relationship between the population and education in a modern society is a rather complicated problem. As a country with a large population and a backward education, China needs to develop its education and promote its population quality in order that favorable conditions may be created for the overall development of Socialist modernization.     

The population situation and its relation to the economy in Turkey]

In southwest Asia, Turkey is a leading nation in collecting complete data on its population through the use of a modern census. Based on available information, the development of Turkey's population can be summarized as follows: 1) in the last 20 years, Turkey's population increase rate has been 2% annually, very high by world standards; 2) the average age is young, and the population's burden coefficient is above 80%; and 3) the geographical distribution of the population is uneven. The population density in central, eastern, and southeastern parts of the country is low, while the coastal provinces near the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Aegean Sea have a high population density. In the last 50 years, the political situation in Turkey has remained stable. The national economy has developed rapidly, and the infant mortality rate has declined as a result of advancements in medicine and health care. Since Turkey is an Islamic country, birth control and abortion are not popular. The traditional early marriage for women and high illiteracy rate among women have contributed to a rapid population growth. In the past 20 years, however, the national economy has been overburdened by a rapid population growth. Problems of unemployment, a housing shortage in cities, inadequate public health facilities, a shortage of schools, a decline in farm land and inadequate food supplies have become increasingly obvious. Economically speaking, Turkey is much better than most developing nations. With its current foundation and rich natural resources, the country needs only to reduce the natural population increase rate slightly in order to achieve a balanced economic development.     

The political economy of population economics

The relationship between political economy and population economics involves many important issues such as the roles of voters, interest groups, families, and social policy. In this short note, we discuss the new and intriguing issues raised by current research at the intersection of these two subjects.     

The population problems in the countryside of China from the viewpoint of ecological economy]

There is a very close relationship between the population and the economy. The economy is the foundation for the existence and development of the population. Different socioeconomic patterns will determine population rules and population development, they have a strong influence on the social economy and the development of the entire society, and they may control the pace of social and economic development. In the last 30 years, excessive population growth has caused a great many difficulties for Socialist construction, overburdened agriculture, and created an imbalance in agricultural ecology. In order to understand the relationship between the development of the agricultural population and agricultural production, we have to understand to dominant position held by people in an agricultural ecology system. People have to control their own reproduction and match it with the productivity of the agricultural ecology system. Unrestrained population growth in the countryside is the main reason for an imbalance in China's agricultural ecology. Urgent action is needed to control the population growth in the rural areas, to fully utilized the available labor force, to promote the level of agricultural productivity, and to provide more employment opportunities. The final goal is to match China's huge agricultural human resources with its rich resources. investment should be encouraged to increase the wisdom and quality of the agricultural population. Both the quality and quantity of the agricultural labor force should also match development of agricultural productivity. In this way, a normal condition of agricultural ecology may be maintained.     

Population, investment, and population quality]

The estimated cost of raising a child in China from birth to 16 years in 1978 was 6907 Yuan in cities, 4830 Yuan in townships, and 1630 Yuan in rural areas, which included both family costs and costs to the public. In 1985, this cost increased 2.79 times in cities, 0.46 times in townships, and 1.39 times in rural areas in real terms. It was also discovered from a survey in 1986 that in the rural areas, the family cost has increased and the cost to the public decreased since 1978. While in the cities, public cost increased and family cost decreased. In comparing 1985 with 1978, it was also discovered that living expenses were still a major part of the cost. But in the cities, the proportion of the cost attributable to living expenses decreased, while educational and medical expenses increased. In the rural areas, the reverse occurred. In terms of investment in education, the large proportion is the public input. IN 1979, family input was 16.5% in rural areas, 28.7% in cities, and 21.4% in townships. In 1985, family input in educational expenses was 10.4% in urban area and 27.4% in rural areas of Beijing. The small proportion of expenditures in education reflects the negligence of education on the part of both the State and families. Number of parents consider that it does not pay to have their children going to schools, and more education means a bigger loss. This is the reason for 7 million primary and middle school drop outs each year in recent years. In order to improve population quality, it is important to reverse this situation.     

Mortality, fertility, education and capital accumulation in a simple OLG economy

We develop a simple OLG model to analytically show that aging leads to increased educational efforts through a general equilibrium effect. The mechanism is that scarcity of raw labor increases the return of human relative to physical capital. While a reduction in the birth rate is shown to unambiguously increase educational efforts, increases in the survival rate have ambiguous effects. Falling birth rates also increase capital per worker, but the effects of rising survival rates are again ambiguous. We conclude that our model is a useful laboratory to highlight potentially offsetting effects in models with endogenous education and overlapping generations.     

On the relationship between population and means of subsistence]

Population is the basis of all social activites and social production. Population growth and development must have a definite means of subsistence to meet its cultural and material needs. The larger the population of a country, the greater is its demand for consumer goods and, likewise, the yield of its means of subsistence should be greater. Population brings about the unification of production and consumption. Furthermore, the ratio of population to the means of subsistence must be maintained at an appropriate level. Population growth must be slower then the growth of the means of subsistence in order to ensure continuous economic expansion and population increase. However, there are some people, notably Malthus, who believe that the balance between population growth and the means of subsistence should be equal. It is crucial to note differences between Marxist and Malthusian points of view. The basic outlook on the nature of the relationship between population and the means of subsistence is different. For Malthusians, it is a matter of the number of people and the quantity of the means of subsistence. For Marxists, the relationship is a historically determined social relationship. For Malthusians, population development is the primary force behind social development, i.e., the imbalance between population and the means of subsistence stems from social ills. Marxists differ from this in believing that population cannot be divorced from material production. Malthusians believe that population surplus derives from a population increase that is greater than an increase in the means of subsistence. Marxists believe a population surplus is also an historically determined social relationship. The Malthusian outlook for the future of population and the means of subsistence is pessimistic, whereas the Marxian view embodies the optimism of revolution.     

On the relationship between population growth and economic development]

People are producers as well as consumers. If we look at only one side and ignore the other, we will be unable to reach impartial conclusions concerning the population problem. An obvious and close relationship exists between population growth and national economic development. If the two do not match each other, there will be numerous contradictory problems. For example, if the population grows too fast, serious social and economic problems will be created, such as a rise in the demand for living resources, an oversupply of the labor force, unemployment, and an insufficient availability of arable land, a shortage of public housing, more demand for health care and public transportation, and cultural and educational enterprises. In addition, a rapid population growth may cause more problems for the natural environment. As a result of overpopulation, the pressure on natural resources will be intensified and may therefore cause damage to the environment and create an ecological imbalance. All the above may bring very serious difficulties and obstacles to the advancement of socialism and modernized constructions. To avoid this, we must try to solve the population problem thoroughly and maintain a balanced relationship between the population growth and economic development.     

四川省人口区域分布与区域经济发展

四川省人口区域分布与中国人口分布有极相似之处:东密西疏。这种不平衡的分布有它的规律性,必然性,靠单方面的人为的力量改变这种分布不均是困难的。这种人口的分布影响到了区域经济的发展。认识到这种人口分布的客观性和规律性,才能正确引导川西经济的可持续发展。     

The population situation in Africa]

The population growth rate in Africa has been the highest in the world since 1970--about 2.7% annually. A lower mortality rate because of better health conditions, their tradition of early marriage and polygamy, and the predominantly agricultural economy are the main reasons. The lack of coordination of such rapid population growth with the slow economic development and backward industrial and agricultural conditions have caused a very serious unemployment problem and inhibit increases in the living standard. The vast areas of desert and equatorial forest are sparsely inhabited. The coastline, Nile delta, and the plateaus are the most densely populated areas of the world. The abnormally developed cities cause expansion of the urban population and serious problems in employment, housing, traffic, health, and education. Many leaders of African countries have begun to realize the seriousness of the rapid population growth, and a few have begun family planning programs. Most countries have no official policies concerning population control and a few even encourage population growth.     

The Marxist outlook on population]

Marxist population theory and world population are discussed. From his study of capitalist population theory Marx concluded, "In capitalist reproduction, poverty produces population," thus rejecting Malthusian population determinism theory and developing economic determinism. According to UN statistics, world population has stabilized since the middle of this century after having doubled every hundred years for the last 300; population in the developed countries showed a positive decrease and average net population growth of the developing countries also decreased. The premise of this paper is that population grows according to social economy development. During the last several hundred years, world wealth increased much faster than population; in the last 200 years alone, the population has increased fivefold, but wealth fortyfold. In addition, world population analysis reveals an inverse relationship between wealth and population in the developed and developing countries: the poorer the country, the greater the population. From this perspective, the study of population must begin with surplus labor. Accumulation of surplus production is the foundation of continuous social development and the basis for population growth. The major difference in methods between capitalist countries and China is that the capitalist-planned fertility affects the individual family while Chinese-planned fertility has the whole nation in mind. Human fertility is determined by the economic system. Private ownership determines the private nature of fertility and public ownership determines the public nature of fertility. Thus population development is determined by the accumulation of social wealth.     

Some general relationships in population dynamics

This paper extends the Lotka system of stable population equations to any population. The authors present this new general system and describe its duality with the recent Preston-Coale system. They derive these results by considering the calculus of change on the surface of population density defined over age and time. They show that analysis of this Lexis surface leads to all the known fundamental relationships of the dynamics of single-region human populations, several interesting new relationships, and a duality between period and cohort life tables.     

Decentralizing population education research

Population education research will now be conducted at the regional, division, and local levels. It is expected that this decentralization will solve problems faced by population education teachers and supervisors in the field and help to formulate curricula suitable to local needs. It will also mean changes in the implementation of the research activities of the Department of Education and Culture-Population Education Program. Since its creation in 1972 the Population Education Program of the Research Unit has been conducting research studies on a centralized basis, seeking out research leads, conducting studies to determine the content and methodology of program curriculum, and assessing the effectiveness of training programs. During the past 3 years the Research Unit has also made significant progress in monitoring the program's activities - determining problems and needs, making recommendations on the basis of findings, and initiating action on such recommendations. 1 recommendation is to establish regional centers for research activities. If approved by the Commission on Population, the proposal will bring about major changes in the research program, the most significant of which will be the establishment of research centers in 12 teacher-training institutions all over the country. Additionally, these institutions will offer consultative services to researchers in the field. The reorganization of the research program, as well as the eventual restructuring of the Training and Curriculum Units, anticipates the withdrawal of foreign financial assistance by 1977. In the decentralized setup, basic results gathered by regional research centers can be immediately consumed by the training or curriculum staff based in these institutions. With decentralization and the related activities, the Population Education Program shows itself capable of responding to emerging research needs.     

The relationship between culture, personality, and sexual jealousy in men in heterosexual and homosexual relationships

This study proposes a new approach to sexual jealousy, that of attitude theory. Within that framework, it examines the roles of culture and personality in the development of sexual jealousy. Using 194 men representing 62 male homosexual couples and 81 heterosexual couples, three hypotheses were analyzed: (1) that jealousy measured by a standard attitude measure, the semantic differential technique, will significantly positively correlate with scores on a standard jealousy measure, Eugene Mathes' Interpersonal Jealousy Scale; (2) that men in heterosexual couples will have higher levels of sexual jealousy than men in homosexual couples; and (3) that sexual jealousy is inversely correlated with self-actualization personality. All three hypotheses were supported, suggesting that sexual jealousy, viewed as an attitude, is mediated by culture and personality.     

The evaluation of China's population policy]

China's population policy has had tremendous effects on the reduction of fertility. The impact of the population policy is manifested in the following aspects. 1) Reducing the size of the total population by 200 million in 17 years. If the population growth rate had remained at its 1970 level of 2.6/1000, the total population would have been 1.28 billion in 1987. 2) The implementation of the population policy accelerated the process of demographic transition. The mortality decline which began in the early 1950s initiated the demographic transition. The Fertility decline began after the birth control policy was implemented and shifted the transition to a low population growth stage even before the socioeconomic conditions which are considered to be the determinants of fertility decline appeared. The fertility decline, in turn, promoted the socioeconomic development of the country. 3) Solving the problem of food; feeding 21.6% of the world's population on 7.1% of the world's farm land is no easy task. The success of population control, no doubt, played an important role in lowering the population growth rate so that the growth of food production could keep pace with the needs of the population. 4) A decline in the dependency ratio is a favorable condition to socioeconomic development. China's dependency ratio of 59.7 is among the lowest in developing countries and is close to the level in developed countries. Therefore, more production output can be used in investment rather than consumption. 5) The fertility decline facilitated a balanced economic growth. The ratio of population growth as compared to the growth of major economic indicators should be considered an important issue in maintaining macroeconomic control. The population policy made it possible for economic growth to surpass population growth.     

The population and economic problems of South Asia]

South Asia, which includes Central South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Southwest Asia, had a comparatively higher population growth rate during the 30-year postwar period because of the overall backward economy and strong religious tradition. From the viewpoint of economics, the high population growth in South Asia has slowed down economic growth, increased the foreign trade imblance, and worsened poverty. Secondly, the rapid population growth has overburdened the area's educational system. The illiteracy rate has been going up continuously because of inadequate funds available for education. Thirdly, young labor is lacking in skills, training, and work experience, and related productivity has declined. Consequently, profits, the investment capability, and wages are also declining. The problems of the oversupply of labor, unemployment, and poverty have also become increasingly serious. In addition, the rapid population growth has intensified the pressure on the food supply and worsened the average nutrition of the general public. In recent years, countries in South Asia have been trying to deal with various problems caused by the rapid population growth. Measures have been taken to control the population growth, with a redistribution of the population to places outside cities, and export labor to oil-producing nations of the Middle East and Africa in order to solve the problem of the domestic labor surplus and earn more income for the foreign exchange. Countries in South Asia need more time and effort to achieve a balance between the population growth and economic development.     

The education effect on population health: a reassessment

Demographic research frequently reports consistent and significant associations between formal educational attainment and a range of health risks such as smoking, drug abuse, and accidents, as well as the contraction of many diseases, and health outcomes such as mortality—almost all indicating the same conclusion: better-educated individuals are healthier and live longer. Despite the substantial reporting of a robust education effect, there is inadequate appreciation of its independent influence and role as a causal agent. To address the effect of education on health in general, three contributions are provided: 1) a macro-level summary of the dimensions of the worldwide educational revolution and a reassessment of its causal role in the health of individuals and in the demographic health transition are carried out; 2) a meta-analysis of methodologically sophisticated studies of the effect of educational attainment on all-cause mortality is conducted to establish the independence and robustness of the education effect on health; and 3) a schooling-cognition hypothesis about the influence of education as a powerful determinant of health is developed in light of new multidisciplinary cognitive research.     

The characteristics of Brazilian population and the population policy of the Brazilian government]

Current population trends in Brazil are described, with attention to ethnic composition, uneven spatial distribution, rapid growth in underdeveloped regions, and rural-urban migration. Consideration is also given to the government's population policy, including the dissemination of population information, the provision of free contraceptives, and the adoption of a target of a birth rate below 20 per 1,000 during the period 1981-2000.     

Some fundamental problems concerning the relationship between population growth and economic development]

The population growth rate is closely related to the quality of economic life, available funds for individual and social consumption, national income to be used for reproduction, and the labor employment situation. Since liberation, socialism has not been able to show its superiority, mainly because of China's large population figure, low economic productivity, low national income, and poor management in the relationship between consumption and accumulation. In order to solve these problems, we need to adequately control the pace of the population growth and match the rate of population growth with the pace of economic development. A way to increase national income is through saving and avoiding unnecessary waste. Social expenditures on education, culture, science, health and medical care, social welfare, and investment in the promotion of people's wisdom should all be increased. Meanwhile, the living standard of the people needs to be raised, and capital accumulation should also be managed so that funds will be available for industrial and economic enterprises. Existing inefficient production enterprises should be properly reorganized so that full employment may be achieved. In this way, the national economy will have more prosperity, and the people will benefit more from the Socialist policy.